Sorokin points out that “unstratified society is a myth’. Thus, every society has it’s own form of stratification. For India, it is caste system’.

Why only in India -it is an institution of highly complex origin, so complex indeed that it in its very nature it must be limited to a single area, and that, no doubt, is why it is only found in India.

Although institution resemble caste in one respect or another are not difficult to find elsewhere, & some of them undoubtedly have some association with caste in their ultimate origin
Yet caste in fullest sense, caste, as we know it in India, is an exclusively Indian phenomenon.
No comparable institution can be seen elsewhere as anything like the complexity elaboration & rigidity of caste of India.

Term – Caste

from Portuguese casta, meaning race, lineage or pure stock : which in turn derived from Latin castus, meaning clean, pure or pious.
Coined to refer to traditional hindu based system of social org in & around India.

Definition of Caste – is harder than to give the derivation of term caste

Herbert Risley defines it as “a collection of families or groups of families bearing a common name; claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine; professing to follow the same hereditary calling ; & regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”
F.G Bailey is his ‘Cast & Economic Frontier’ defines caste as ‘closed stratified & organic entity’.
While David & Julia Jary considers caste as ‘system of hierarchically ranked, closed, endogenous groups where ascribed membership makes mobility theoretically impossible.
Caste is both institution & ideology. As a institution, it provides structure for social hierarchy. As an ideology, it legitimises & reinforces the existing structure of social inequality.
Caste is by definition is a closed social system whose membership is acquired by virtue of birth. Rules of endogamy & restrictions on social intercourses b/w castes help to maintain the insularity of such groups

What is caste system – System of social stratification of hierarchically arranged castes.

Principle of Caste System

Bougle predominantly proposes 3 main principles of caste system
1. Heredity Specialisation
2. Hierarchy according to ritual status
3. Mutual repulsion
Louis Dumont condenses these 3 principles into dialectic of Purity & Pollution
However, some scholar like Bailey, Berremanbelieves that more than ritual ranking, caste is associated with power both political & economical even Srinivastried to prove mobility based on political & economics factors

Characteristics of caste system – G.S Ghurye, an Indologist gave 6 characteristics of caste system in his “caste & Race in India’ (1932)

Segmental Division of Society – membership dependent on ascription & status on caste ranking
Hierarchy – giving specific status to caste as observed by Ghurye in Varanasi Brahmins
Restriction on commensality – Minute rules on sharing & acceptance of food & water e.g Brahmin not accept Kutchha food from shudra ; Rules of who accepts from whom
Disabilities & Privileges – both Civil & religious disabilities to lower castes caused by rigidity of caste system & come from purity & pollution ; Ghurye study on Toddy Tappers in Madras ;
Occupational Restrictions -rigid Criteria’s based on birth | Jajmani System
Endogamy – Strict restriction on inter caste marriage. One of main reason of its persistence. ; disobey not only as crime but but also as sin

Caste Councils – Authority to compel obedience; grievance redressal

These feature constitute only general outlines of CS. However owing to its complexity, the caste system in susceptible to & demonstrates regional variations, esp in three domains – it r/l with kinship, occupation & power.

Max Weber (1948) identified 2 main feature of caste system

Commensality
Connubium i.e caste & Kinship & Marriage link ; refers to right & obligation of members of a category fo men to choose their wives from a prescribed category of women.

Functions of Caste System –

Andre Beitelle argues that caste system form very basis of traditional society Gives
- Gives Social & psychological stability, thus providing identity to individual
- Economic sustainability through occupational specialisation
- Organic relation with other social institutions
- Organic solidarity b/c different members of society.
Acc, to Berreman the principle functions of CS are to
- Cultural pluralism – Perpetuate social & cultural diversities & to enforce & articulate them. Privilege is protected thr power.
- Acc. To him any marked stratification is itself a source of mobility motivation. Such mobility striving is a constant dynamic force in caste system.
- These are dysfunctional in modern world, irrelevant to human welfare & source of unnecessary conflict & suffering.

Merits of Caste System

Social & psychological security
Efficiency in occupation & security of occupation’s secrets
Availability & selection of spouse
Controlling behaviour of members
Division of labour

Demerit

Hinders eco. Dev & lack of occupational mobility
Exploitation & oppression of lower casts
Untouchability & human rights violation
Faultiness in national unity
Detrimental to democratic fabric
Hampers social communication B/w different segments of society
Religious Conversation.

We can conclude that its demerits are more than merits.

Sociologist & Anthropologist observe that in spite of closed nature of caste system, there have been changes in caste hierarchy & its norms from time to time. For ex culturally accepted practises ding the vedic times became taboo in the periods that followed. Some of these practise were vedic Hinduism was magico- animistic ; Vedic Brahmans drank soma (liquor) offered animal sacrifice & ate beef. These practices were prohibited later but they continued among the lower castes (Singh 1973)

Indian society has been existing thr a triangle consisting of joint family, caste system & village organisation. A very dominant proportion of Indian population lives thr this triangle. Any change in any one of the them leads to social change.

Purity & Pollution

the notion of purity & pollution as basis for caste hierarchy is associated with French sociologist Louis Dumont.He offered this concept as ideal types of traditional Hindu caste system in his well known book ‘Homo Hierarchicus’.

The concept is mainly developed on Indological, classical hindu texts, Dumont used Structuralist perspective to develop a pure model for caste hierarchical system.

Dumont’s Arguments

Dumont insisted that parallels of Indian society with west is fundamentally flawed as western society is ‘class based’. He looks binary opposition b/w Hindu society & western society
He proposes that ‘Totalism & Holism’ are proper indicators which can explain theory of caste. Thus, he proposes that ‘Ideological aspect’ will reveal true nature of hindu society. It is only ideology through which essence of caste will be evolved.

Dumont’s Idea of Hierarchy

Similar to Bougle, Dumont supported 3 main principles of caste system; hereditary specialisation, hierarchy & mutual repulsion
However, he reduces all 3 principles into dialectic of ‘purity & pollution’. this is single true principle which unites all 3 principles.
Superiority of pure & need of serration b/w pure & impure necessitated need of hierarchy this manifested into division of labour.
He also differentiated b/w status & power & observes divergence b/w two. He observes that politically & economically powerful need not be ritually higher.
Thus, principle of status was superior to power in social org of caste system. Thus ‘Status encompasses power’.

Louis Dumont & Views

Introduction – LD, upon his fieldwork on Pramalai Kollars of south India & Indological literature on caste, gave theoretical study of caste & hierarchy in his “Homo hierarchicus’ (1970)

Body Dumont & Caste System – For him Indian society is specific ideology which is in binary opposition to western society. As he lays emphasis on attributes of cates so → c/a attributional approach

Caste is not just of form of stratification but a special form of inequality.
he was structuralist approach for system of caste system
Main argument of Dumont’s
1. Binary Opposition (purity & impurity) act as fundamental principle underling hindu caste system
2. Notion of hierarchy as basis of caste system
3. Ritual hierarchy is central to caste system & distinct from eco & political factors (thus separates power & status) so not class based
Dumont endorses 3 main principles of caste system given by Bougle ;
- hereditary specialisation & interdependence, hierarchy acc to ritual Status & mutual repulsion
- he reduces all 3 principles into dialectic of ‘purity & pollution’. this is single true principle which unites all 3 principles.
- He shows that opposition b/w pure & impure exists at all 3 principles ; hierarchy b/c to separate pure & impure ; DoL b/c to segregate pure & impure occupations.
Though attributes of purity & pollution can be used can be used to identify two extremes, Brahmins & Untouchables, but gradation of intermediate caste is difficult : Thr it Dumont criticises Bailey’s attempts to unit status & power
- He show how different attributes are used in local conditions to est. series of division b/w superiors & inferior caste.
- Ex. Vegetarian caste superior over non veg, prohibiting widow remarriage superior over allowing etc. He say that such dichotomies reaffirms imp of hierarchical principle.
Contribution
- Use of indological & structural approach to study of caste & village social structure.
- Change in contemporary india is Organisational rather than structural
Criticism
- DM viewed caste system in stagnation however it is changing in various ways
- Yogendra Singh : left out many crucial factors like formal org, industrial system etc
- Purity & pollution : Not universal concept (as in some tribes ; Status anchored by sacredness rather than purity)
- Berreman (2001) by giving the ex of Gonds ; said segregation of power & status is illogical ; he represented biased & Brahmanical view of caste
- Deepankar Gupta : emphasis on Indology & careful negligence of ground realities.

Conclusion – amidst debate about approach, Dumont gave outstanding contribution. He advocated the use of Indological & structural approach to the study of caste system & village social str. In India. In Homo hierarchicus he built up a model of Indian civilisation based on non-competitive ritual hierarchical system.

G.S Ghurye

Introduction – he was Indian sociologist who followed Indological perspective for study of caste system. His views on caste system can be best describe from his work “ Caste & Race in India (1932).”

Body – Ghuraye on caste

His understating of caste is comparative, historical & Indological as well
He considers caste as an product of Indian culture, changing with passage of time, thus subjected to sociological interest.
In his work“ Caste & Race in India (1932) he agrees with Sir Herbert Risley that caste is product of race that comes to india along with Aryans
He also points out that caste was central to organised form of division of labour in Aryan society.
He observes that caste has undergone many fission & fusions in diff ways – proposed that each linguistic zone has 200 Jatis & around 3000 sub jati
He used Attributional approach to study caste system with inspiration from Weber & Bougle.
6 Character of caste by Ghurye
1. Segmental Division of Society – membership dependent on ascription & status on caste ranking
2. Hierarchy – giving specific status to caste as observed by Ghurye in Varanasi Brahmins
3. Restriction on commensality – Minute rules on sharing & acceptance of food & water e.g Brahmin not accept Kutchha food from shudra ; Rules of who accepts from whom
4. Disabilities & Privileges – both Civil & religious disabilities to lower castes caused by rigidity of caste system & come from purity & pollution ; Ghurye study on Toddy Tappers in Madras ;
5. Occupational Restrictions -rigid Criteria’s based on birth | Jajmani System
6. Endogamy – Strict restriction on inter caste marriage. One of main reason of its persistence. ; disobey not only as crime but but also as sin
Using attributional approach, showed how each cate is separated in hierarchical order
Criticism on Ghurye
- Failed to recognise rise of modern India & contribution of Islamic & British rulers
- In Ghurye’s sociology, Ideology predominates over the fact
- A.R Desai – studying India from lens of culture will provide us no space to understand real India (inequality, diversity, exploitation)

Main Approaches To Study Caste System

To counter historical explanation for caste gives by Varna theory & guna theory, early sociologist moved towards explanation of caste as socially cognizable reality. 3 Main Scholars were

Karl Marx – Village republic model where caste group were explained thr ownership of land holding which determines their groups position in society.
Max Weber – caste as status groups whose members are recognised by social & economic position & relationship b/w castes is governed by ritual opposition of ‘purity & pollution’.
Celestine Bougle – caste recognised by place in hierarchy & it’s occupation. interaction b/w caste governed by hierarchy & separation.

Based on these views, 2 main approaches emerged

Attributional Approach
Interactional Approach

Attributional Approach

Developed on early insights of Weber & Bougle. Attributional approach discuss primarily features of caste system i.e attributes of caste which are inalienable qualities associated with caste system. (Which separates it from other forms of social stratification)

G.S Ghurye – considered that each caste was separated from other in hierarchical order. This hierarchy came out of attributes of caste. These were 6 as given above
J.H. Hutton – in his caste in India held that central feature of caste systems was endogamy. Another imp attitudes was taboo on taking cooked food (pucha food) from any other caste.
- Hutton gave 7 important attitudes – Endogamy, commonality restriction, hierarchy, occupational restriction, Ascriptive status, Prestige of Brahmin, Pollution related to food, sex & ritual.
M.N. Srinivas– Srinivas studied structure of relations b/w caste on basis of caste attributes. Thus he introduced dynamic aspect of caste identity.
- ‘Sanskritization’ as concept of positional mobility in which lower caste drop low attributes & adopt high attitudes that of upper castes.
- Dominant caste concept based on attributes of : Numbers, land ownership & political power.

Criticism of Attributional Approach

Marriot shows in kisangarhi that position in social hierarchy is not based on attributes.
Ambiguity over highness & lowness of occupations ( Bougle emphasis on occupation)
Discrepancy b/w attributes & caste – Srinivas in Mysore study show how peasants were ranked above traders though traders were veg followed clean occupation
Subjectivity on importance of attribute.

Interactional Approach

This approach focuses on how castes are actually ranked wrt one another in local empirical contest.

F.G Bailey – Based on his study of Bisipara (Odisha),he found the Kshatriyas, who lost their lands after independence, slided down in local hierarchy. Thus he unites ritual & secular hierarchy(i.e power).. Thus overlapping b.w status & power.
Adrian Mayer – based on his Ramkheri Village Study (MP), observed that commensal hierarchy is based on caste & ranking. This governs intercaste r/l & thus segregates the society.
Mackim Marriott – based on his study of KisanGarhi & Ram Nagla (UP), he proposed that both ritual & non-ritual hierarchies affect ranking, though ritual hierarchies play dominant role. Thus Marriott confirmed that ritual hierarchy is self was linked to economic & political hierarchy. However, Marriott also agreed that inconsistencies sometimes exists which gave way for social mobility.

Louis Dumont – focused on r/l b/w caste rather than attributes
- Proposed that though local context in ranking is imp, but subjected to ideology of hierarchy, which is common & extended to entire caste system
- Thus, caste system is unique type of inequality & hierarchy is essential value to it.
- Various aspects of caste based on dialect of ‘purity & pollution’
- However separated status & power

Criticism of Interactional

Subsumes importance of attributes. Interaction alone can’t a/c for ranks w/o reference to attributes
Except for Dumont, all other in this theory localises hierarchy & proposes that ranking is outcome of interaction. Thus there is a emphasis on separation (stratification) rather than hierarchy.
Dumont took book viewing caste system in stagnation.
Dumont’s clear separation of power & status criticised by Berreman
Element of conflict is missing ~~cohesive~~ integrative function of caste is highlighted

Thus we can note that both approaches includes both attributes as well as interaction perspective. But emphasis of one over other different them.

Caste – System of Hierarchy or Stratification | Ritual Ranking or Political -Eco

Two basic approaches to Institution of caste

Ideological – with an emphasis on culture & hierarchical model. It focuses on ritual symbolism.
Interactional – with an emphasis on structure & stratification model. It focuses on power relations

Hierarchy Model – Dumont, Ghurye, Hutton

Stratification & Power Relation – F.G Bailey, Marriott, A. Mayer, Berreman, Deepankar Gupta.

Both Stratification & Hierarchy -HNC Stevenson

HNC Stevenson – in her ‘Status Evaluation in Hindu caste System”

Indian caste system puts more emphasis on ritual status rather than secular status.
Thus, it creates ‘Rigid Groups’ which makes it social stratification with low mobility.
Further in order to maintain ritual purity, hierarchies are established which makes it social stratification with hierarchy.

Berreman – Both status & power are two sides of same coin.

he cites ex of ‘Gonds’ tribal who were absorbed into caste system & given untouchable status. However, on economic improvements they were recognised as RajGonds

Deepankar Gupta –

In his “interrogation Caste’ – caste first exist as discrete categories, hierarchies come laters
Also argues that ‘Rule of caste’ is obeyed when it is accompanied by rule of power.

Varna Model

Varna system depicts social structure based generally on scientific idea of division of labour. The varna divide Hindu society into 4 orders – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya & Shudra

The first 3 varnas are twice born or Dvijyasince men in these varnas we’re entitled to wear sacred thread at vedic rite of Upanayana. The untouchables were out of varna system
9 duties are common to all 4 varnas are control of anger, speaking the truth, Justice, forgiveness, begetting children from one’s own wife, pure conduct, avoiding quarrel, uprightness & the maintenance of one’s dependents

Origin of Varna

Divine Origin Theory –
- Caste were created by Brahma
- This scheme is traced from “Purushasukta” the 10th Mandala of Rig Veda. This hymns tells that emergence of 4 vernas after Purusha (Brahma-the universal man) resorted to self destruction so that social order comes in existence.
- Acc to this – come from following
  - Brahmana Varna represented/come from the mouth of Purusha
  - the Kshatriya, his arms,
  - the Vyshya his things &
  - Sudra his feet.
- Interpreted as allegorical significance & indicative of work done by diff. Vernas ;
  - seat of speech → teacher & instructor,
  - arm as symbol of valour & strength → adm, weapons & protect people ;
  - thigh may be a large portion of body, high consumption → cultivation, trade & provide food ;
  - foot → footman, servant l oblique to serve above 3
- whole body symbolically conceived as human being – the Body social,
- Purana,Mahabharat, Ramayana & Manusmriti also quoted this theory.
- Differential duties & occupations assigned → to protect whole universe
Karma Theory – The sage Bhrigu (in Mahabharat) envisages that only the great Brahma first created a few Brahmans. Later 4 division on mankind were developed on a/c of their acts (karma) from one original class c/c Dwijas – the twice born.
- Diff meaning – if one is born in lower varna, then following the Dhrama of his own varna in this birth, he may be able to born again in a higher varna in the next birth.
- One who is born in higher varna must live upto the duties & obligations of his varna if he doesn’t want to be degraded in the next birth.
Guna/Triguna Theory – Acc to Bhagavadgita, it maintains that social classes have evolved from inherent qualities, the Gunas, & allocation of work based on these qualities. (Karma based on Guna);
- Ancient Indian Lit talks about 3 gunas of man – Sattva, Rajas & Tamas
  - Satta – Noble thoughts & deeds, virtues of high qualities, moral goodness, wisdom & truth
  - Rajas– luxury, exuberance, high living, indulgence, passion, pride & valour
  - Tamas – Shudra – Physical labor, lack of imagination, dullness etc.
- Believed that each individual possess diff gunna but one predominate which determines varna.
  - Brahmana – Sattvaguna Predominates
  - Kashtriya – Rajguna Predominates
  - Vaishya – tamaguna predominates
  - Shudra – only tamas guna
Aryan Invasion Theory – Acc to Herbert Risley, it was introduce by Aryans who have originated in Iran/ Persian who already has systems in their society.
Racial Theory – Ghurye in his ‘Caste & Race in India’ argues that distinction of Arya & Shudra gave a way to distinction of Arya & shudra. Acc to Rig Veda, this was not applied to Brahman, Kshatriyas. However, classes which existed at that time later came to arrange in Varnas.

Features of Varna System

Status – (Vishnupurana )Philosophical literate says “Janmana Jayathe Sudhar” ie. everyone is born a shudra. It is only based on one’s qualities or Guna one may develop over a period of time, thr socialisation, can an individual be classified into any one of the four Varnas
Mobility – No completely closed, mobility possible. Ex. Raja Janak enjoyed Brahman status due to k/n, Dronacharya being Brahman enjoyed Kshatriya status
Hierarchy – fixed & clear hierarchy
Untouchables – Kept out of the system
Srinivas states that it was All india single hierarchy without regional variation.

Assessment of Varna Model

Varna system is only broad categories of society & not the existing effective units as said by Srinivas
Ghurye states that in each linguistic region, there are about 200 caste groups which are further divided into 3000 smaller units
Srinivasstates that varna certainly distorted the picture of caste, but it also enabled ordinary people to understand & access the General place of caste within this framework thr out india.
- Provide common lang which holds good in all parts of india. this sense of familiarity leads to sense of unity among people.
- Thus Srinivas believes that hindu society has been full of changes & improvisations. But these changes have been against background of Varna hierarchy.
Early Indologists who used Indological & hindu texts emphasised on Varna model as basis of Indian Social system
Even Gandhiji in alternative to remove inequalities of caste system, preferred to revert to Varna system.
There is no room for untouchability in varna.

Jati Model

M.N Srinivas, while criticising Varna system for creating false impression of caste, admitted Jati as concrete Social grouping of people, which differ considerably from region to region.

While Varma was loose & broad categorisation of Indian society, jati model has always been ethnographic & empirical reality.

According to Ghurye, each linguistic region, there are about 200 caste groups which are further divided into 3000 smaller units

Principles of Jati System

Characteristics of Jati

Main differences from Varna Category

while Varna provides clear cut hierarchies Jati hierarchies are less clear & ambiguous
The different Jatis in different regions were arranged in hierarchy depending on different attributes
- This subjective leads to many Jatis claiming higher status than ascribed to them. This leads to caste mobility process k/n as Sanskritisation.
while mobility was comparatively easy in varna system, the closing of ranks in evolution of Jatis created water tight compartmentalisation which made mobility difficult.
Interrelation Approach of examining Jati views overlapping b/w ritual & secular hierarchy of caste (pointed by Bailey & Marriott). But, Indological Approach by Dumont tends to separate status & power in Jati system.
Andre Beteille in his “caste, class & power” remarked that there is greater autonomy emerging in 3 of these categories & association of political economic status with ritual status is weakening.
In Jati system ; there are untouchables who are integral part of it.

Conclusion – though there is cry for equality among the humanity, we can’t avoid the differences b/w man & man in term of natural abilities, capacities, intelligence & aptitude. In social affairs & social communication, such individual diff are apt to give rise to a formation of social groups, each of which consist of individuals who find themselves agreeable to each other b/c General similarity of tastes, vocations, likes & dislikes, social status & such other factors.

Social classes that are directed towards, or have developed into a rigid stratification, based on a concentration of power, Authority, prestige & economic & material rewards form the higher classes

Yet, it should also be clear that criticism, which are applicable to social classes that have attained permanence & fixity purely on the basis of descent or family – Heritage can’t be applied to varna theory.

For, it has to be specially noted that the varna org is so conceived that there could be no room for any varna to consider itself to be superior over the other or to consider itself being placed in a position of grater or lesser advantage with reference to other. Each varna is designed to occupy a particular position in the society, not with reference to any advantage or special rights, but with reference to its capabilities & likelihood to carry out a particular position & its social obligations.

What may appear to be advantages or special privileges of varna are primarily intended only to secure the best. Possible env & circumstances in order to enable that class to carry out its obligations to the best of its abilities.

The varna schemes is intended to promote the social org in terms of its seeking to build up & promote social equilibrium & solidarity thr a special kind of eco org. To conclude, it can be stated that the varna theory might have been devised with view to engaging the different types of human energies in different channels suitable to each of them, & all towards the one end of social org, social stability, ultimately leading to social progress.

Caste in other Religion

Sorokin points out that “unstratified society is a myth’. Thus, every society has it’s own form of stratification system like class system in west. India has caste system of Stratification.

Muslims

Muslims are divided into 3 parts i.e Ashraf, Ajlaf & Arzal
- Ashraf – Royal Class
- Ajlaf – Hindu Converts
- Arzal – Untouchables
G. Ansari in his ‘Muslims caste in UP – Ashrafs, Rajput muslims, Clean caste Muslims, untouchables (Bhangi Muslims)
They also have one more method of division based upon faith i.e
- Shia – who believe in prophet’s bloodline.
- Sunni – who believe only in message of prophet

Christianity –

Although emphasis on universal brotherhood & humanity, but also stratified in India.
Divided in Protestant & Catholic based on religious beliefs
However at local level, there is more stratification : Models
- Kerala Stratification– Bomman Christian → Khardos “ → Sudir “ → Dalit Christians
- Goa Stratification – Scythian Christians → Latin “ → Dalit Christians

Sikhs

Based on teachings of gurunanak dev & subsequent 10 gurus which preach equality & brotherhood. But stratified into
1. Sardars – these are royal castes & enjoy high status.
2. Majhabis – these are lower caste engaged in menial jobs like manual scavenging.

Buddhism –

The “Purana Kassapa” conceptualised 6 social divisions based on occupation, trade, caste & sect affiliation
1. Kanhabi Jati – Black Jati (huntermen, fishermen)
2. Nilabhi Jati – Blue jati (Bhikshus)
3. Lohitabhi Jati – Red jatoi ( Jaina)
4. Halladdabhi Jati – Yellow Jati (gahaputi)
5. Sukkabhi Jati – white jati (Ajivikas)
Charles Eliot – in his “Hinduism & Buddhism” suggest that buddhism initial fought caste system of Hinduism, later adopted it.
E. Senart – in his “caste in India” – noting in Buddhism was aimed to change the entire caste system

Jainism

After 2nd Council at Valabhi got divided into Svetambar & Digambar due to diff in religious ideas.
Further divided in Tera Panthi, Taranpanthi

Thus , India being land of religions has led to adoption of its model of stratification in different religious society.

Tribal Religion

Juang (Odisha) – studied by N.K Bose
- Found that Juang adopted hindu social caste system in their local strata
Hindu Methods of Tribal Absorption

Theories of Origin of Caste System

This is believed to have originated in the 2nd or 1st millennium BC & was largely in place by about 500 AD.
Indology – use of ancient texts & scriptures of India by sociologists to understand the social & cultural life in India

Introduction – Many western scholars described origin of caste system in their own ways. Risley has attributed racial difference as a casue, whereas Dubois stressed on role of Brahmins to created caste. Nesfield & Ibbeston stressed on occupational factors whereas Hutton referred to belief in ‘Mana’ as origin of caste.

Risley – Nesfield debate

Traditional Theories

Introduction – traditional theory owes origin to ancient literature. It believes caste has divine origin.

Divine Origin Theory –
- Caste were created by Brahma
- This scheme is traced from “Purushasukta” the 10th Mandala of Rig Veda. This hymns tells that emergence of 4 vernas after Purusha (Brahma-the universal man) resorted to self destruction so that social order comes in existence.
- Acc to this – come from following
  - Brahmana Varna represented/come from the mouth of Purusha
  - the Kshatriya, his arms,
  - the Vyshya his things &
  - Sudra his feet.
- Interpreted as allegorical significance & indicative of work done by diff. Vernas ;
  - seat of speech → teacher & instructor,
  - arm as symbol of valour & strength → adm, weapons & protect people ;
  - thigh may be a large portion of body, high consumption → cultivation, trade & provide food ;
  - foot → footman, servant l oblique to serve above 3
- whole body symbolically conceived as human being – the Body social,
- Purana,Mahabharat, Ramayana & Manusmriti also quoted this theory.
- Differential duties & occupations assigned → to protect whole universe
Karma Theory – The sage Bhrigu (in Mahabharat) envisages that only the great Brahma first created a few Brahmans. Later 4 division on mankind were developed on a/c of their acts (karma) from one original class c/c Dwijas – the twice born.
- Diff meaning – if one is born in lower varna, then following the Dhrama of his own varna in this birth, he may be able to born again in a higher varna in the next birth.
- One who is born in higher varna must live upto the duties & obligations of his varna if he doesn’t want to be degraded in the next birth.
Guna/Triguna / Sociological /Achievement Theory – Acc to Bhagavadgita, it maintains that social classes have evolved from inherent qualities & charismatic endowment , the Gunas, & allocation of work based on these qualities. (Karma based on Guna);
- Ancient Indian Lit talks about 3 gunas of man – Sattva, Rajas & Tamas
  - Satta – Noble thoughts & deeds, virtues of high qualities, moral goodness, wisdom & truth
  - Rajas– luxury, exuberance, high living, indulgence, passion, pride & valour
  - Tamas – Shudra – Physical labor, lack of imagination, dullness etc.
- Believed that each individual possess diff gunna but one predominate which determines varna.
  - Brahmana – Sattvaguna Predominates
  - Kashtriya – Rajguna Predominates
  - Vaishya – tamaguna predominates
  - Shudra – only tamas guna

Criticism of traditional theories

Divine Origin – Thus considers as supernatural phenomena which is biological wrong
Equated Varnas & caste system : M.N Srinivas – idea of caste as 4 fold division of society is gross oversimplification
Tracing origin to miscegenation (intermixing) is misleading
Guna theory is silent about the how these Guna can be achieved.

Conclusion – Rejected by Scholars 👨‍🏫 | Precisely the objective behind such theory is to utilise the power of human into proper & productive uses & also to achieve decentralisation of power. It is a very interesting way to achieve division of labour & also a channel to put this labor to the greatest interest of society.

Theory of Cultural Integration

propounded by S.C Roy
Is outcome of interaction b/w Indo Aryans Varna system on one hand & tribal system of Dravidian on other.
Caste System – Outcome of integration & assimilation of diff cultures like Aryan’s
As no. Of ethnic groups increased system grow more complex

Occupation Theory

Introduction- Nasfield regarded caste system as natural product of occupation division of Hindu society. (I.e No role of religion)

Body – Occupation Theory’s postulates

Nasfield believes that origin of caste has noting to do with racial affinity, but it mainly due to function or occupations

Skill of occupation → Passed from gen to gen → occupation guilds → caste

he holds that at beginning, there was no rigidity. Gradually system becomes rigid
Caste were thus identified on bais of fixed occupations
- Persons with noble occupation → edu, fighting, trade → superiors castes
- Others → Inferior caste
He supports argument giving ex that occupations working in metals ranked or other occupations not involving use of metal

Criticism

occupation as sole basis ; such complex system can’t originate from simple superficial criteria like occupation
Not consisted relative positioning of groups varying in diff. Regions
- Ex. S. India → Agri → Lower caste
- Ex. N. India → Agri → Higher caste
even if it was independent of religion ; they have undoubtedly received religious sanction since.

Dahlmann in his ‘Das Altindische Volkstum’ supported it ; regards Indian society as organised originally into three natural groups – 1. Priesthood 2. Nobility 3. Bourgeoisie

these found in every civilised community & represent division of people respectively concerned with religious, political & economic breaches of life.
Acc to him These groups correspond to three twice born Varnas
& later split up into smaller groups & communities, some based on relationship & others on community of occupations.
So castes sprang not from the 4 vanas but from the infinite no. Of groups of relatives into which 4 Varnas are divided.
There was steady progress of development ; Classes → corporation → castes
Agri was originally prime factor in economic life of India ; rival developed in form of trade & Industry & the principle of division of labour become so imp that it became regarded as the duty of the ruler to base his economic policy on the division of labour & distinction of occupations.
On the basis of old division of classes, corporations gradually arose & guilds of traders & hand-workers came into existence.
Community of interest among persons following the same craft gave rise to a corporate organization & technical skill was passed on from father to son. Families of craftsman thus arose, bound together by a community of interest that gave rise to corporate org & formed guild.
It is this guild that is really the base of the caste system

Slater in his work “Dravidian Elements in Indian Culture” – combines both functional & racial origins.

He emphasises that fact that caste is actually stronger in southern than in northern India
Suggest caste arose in india before the Aryan invasion ; as a occupations becoming hereditary & marriages being arranged by parents within society of common craft b/c sexual maturity is early & Trade secrets were thus preserved.
As a result magic & religious ceremonies also, exclusive occupation groups were built up, marriage outside became contrary to practise .
The Aryan invasion had the effect of strengthening a tendency to associate difference of caste with a difference of colour & of strengthening also a tendency for caste to be placed in a scale of social precedence.

Racial Theory – Race & Hypergamy

Introduction – this theory is propounded by Herbert Risley in his book “The People of India” which states that ‘Clash of cultures & contact of races crystallised the castes in India.’ Primarily it was due to colour differences & hypergamy.

Body

Dumont argued that migrant ‘Aryans’ had their own ideas of ceremonial purity. They considered original inhabitants as inferior.
Aryans were patrilineal & original inhabitants were matrilineal
They married daughters of aboriginals but refused to give their daughters.
Children born out of such m’age had lowest position in society k/n as Chandals 🌑. Thus

Origin of ‘half breeds group + feeling of racial superiority → Origin of caste system

Aryan + Dasyu → Varnasamkara → Untouchables → permanent hierarchy

Necessary to Assume a hypothetical point : Inter m’age b/w fair Aryan invader & dark aborigines → provided enough Women for society to close its ranks & become caste.
Risley referred 6 process in formation of caste (hub & spoke model rep)
- Migration
- Preservation of old tradition
- Changes in traditional occupation
- Role of religious enthusiasm
- Enrolling oneself into rank of Hinduism
- Changes in custom
Prof N.K Duta adopted racial theory of origin & attaches much more value to the a/c of caste in the code of manu.
Supported by Ghurye – but emphasised the factor of priestly manipulation by Brahmans attempting to maintain the purity race of Aryan invaders.
- Ghuraye also traced origin to race
- He associated caste with Brahmanical system
- Conquest of Aryans → conquered race as shura → excluded from religious & social activities of Aryans
- Ghuraye also believes that multiplicity of groups resulted in formation of castes & sub-castes.
Majumdar’s view (in his work ‘ Race & Cultures in India’)
- Origin can be tranced back to varna or complexion
- Initially only 3 classes were there based on complexion which were formed out of intermixing of pro-Dravidian & Proto-Mediterranean races
- Intermixing arose out of acquisition of wives & desire of settled life.

Criticism

If due to intermixing of races, then should be found in all such societies which undergone conquest by another group
Segregation doesn’t always leads to untouchability
Hypergamy can be reason , but not sole reason
Too much emphasis on race.
Fossil evidence of these racers are not present b/c soil of Indian subcontinent is highly acidic. Therefore racial theory doen’t go so far.

Hutton’s Mana Theory

Introduction – JJ Hutton proposed theory of ‘Mana’ which pointed out role of fear of supernatural power & taboo in creation of caste system.

Body

Mana
- is due to animatism i.e supernatural power possessing capacity to do good or bad.
- Tribals believe that every object, places, even to individual, has it’s soul & souls is not equally distributed, thus hierarchy
- They also believed that this ‘mana’ can be transmitted thr contact & social intercourse.
Mana & Taboo | Mana → fear → restriction → caste
- Each Mana has corresponding taboos which are required as to provide protective measures.
- Taboos are imposed on commensality, inter m’age etc to prevent one tribe from Mana of other tribe
- Huttons argument is that caste elements were present before Ayan invasion
study – In his study of tribes from east of Naga hills,
- Hutton fond distribution of occupations among villages
- He also observed r/l in migration to new villages & taboo on practice of village occupations on migrated community.
- Hutton cited mana principles in diff. Religions life Kudrat in Islam, Shakti in Hinduism, iddhi in Buddhism.
- He come to conclusion that : – Mana → fear → restriction on occupation, food, drink, m’age → origin of caste

Criticism

India not only country where belief of mana exist. Thus no relation b/w mana & caste
No evidence

Conclusion

Brahminical / Political Theory

Introduction- This theory propounds that not racial but political convenience & Manipulation by Brahmins to retain authority resulted in caste system

Abbé Dubois’s (1857) View

says that caste system originated & developed (indigenous devise) b/c Brahmins i.e result of artificial creation, a devise for clever priesthood for the permanent division & subjection of masses or even as the tool to create a single law giver.
Brahmins Imposed several social restrictions on non Brahmins, esp on shudra’s to preserve purity
Gave themselves higher status & other as inferior to them with shudras as most inferior.
Whatever a Brahmin says was norm & entire property of society belonged to Brahmins
Salvation of individual or society lied in performance of religious rites by Brahmins only

Ghuraye’s Observation in his “ Caste & Race in India”

As is a Brahmanical child of Indo Aryan Culture.
Brahmanic literature classified ‘Dwijas’ & ek jati (Sudra)
Restriction on m’age commensality of food.
Thus caste system is product to maintain superiority of Brahmins.

Ibbetson – laid great emphasis on the exploitation of their position by Brahmana caste

Aries from combination of tribal origins, functional guilds & religious monopolies.
These feature have contributed to growth & extension of caste system ; also consolidation & perpetuation.
But one can’t consider these as the case of origin of it. As these are not unique to india but caste is unique to only india.
So, there is noting in these three, except priestly order which gives rise to caste system

Hocart – the whole system of caste originated in ritual.

he regarded the 4 varnas as division of the people devised primarily for ritualistic purposes.
They represent the four points of the compass as do the colours red, white, yellow & black.
The functions or the occupations performed by the various castes are in fact the aspects of daily ritual.

Criticism –

on basis that a deep rooted & pervasive social institution like CS can’t owe its origin to purely administrative measures.
it’s not a artificial entity but an organic phenomenon.

Aryan Invasion Theory

Introduction –Senart in his well known work “Les Castes dans I’Inde” stated that where ever Aryans went, caste system followed

Body –

Aryan invasion led to formation of mixed race with two ordered of reservation about purity
1. Purity of descent
2. Purity of occupation
These reservation led to formation of new groups → led to division of traditional 4 castes.

Criticism

Postulating non existent simplicity of the society during the time of Rig Veda
Dalhmann says, this period had no simple law & customs, but complex civilisation with well developed custom & ritual.

Small Endogenous Group Theory

Introduction- Linton draws attention to the probability that India formed at some time in its past, part of the Austronesian regions in which these has been since Palaeolithic times, a fundamental pattern of organisation on the basis of small endogenous groups

This patten assumes various forms , but it is linked with predominant importance of kinship as the basis of organising the reciprocal behaviours of the group’s members.
In such a system; it would be an easy matter for caste to develop in response to frequent invasion & to the emergence of an urban culture, as it would provide a flexible mechanism for encapsulating foreign elements & for developing guild system to their logical con conclusion.

Criticism

All these theories of the caste system lay emphasis on the phenomenon rather than the causes of the system.
Non of these theories explain the role played by the primitive conceptions like “mana” & soul-substance in the formation of the caste system
Importance of understanding the interaction b/w the Indo-Aryan Varan system & Pre-Dravidian occupation class system is not highlighted.

conclusion Final

SC Roy in ‘Man In India’ opines that multiple factors could have led to caste system. It is most accepted view.

Dominant Caste

Concept of DC was given Prof. M.N. Srinivas (a Sociologist) in his paper “Dominant Caste in Rampura”,based on his study of village Rampura, KA published in the journal American Anthropologist in 1959.

The term dominant caste is used to refer to a caste which yields economic or political power & occupies a fairly high ritual position in the hierarchy. Predominant numerically, economically, politically.

Ex: Jats and Rajputs in North India, Lingayats in Karnataka, Reddy and Kamma in Andhra, Patidars in Gujarat, Maratha in Maharashtra

Concept of Dominant Caste & Development

Srinivas used structuralist approach while locking at hierarchy in local context.
Acc to Dumont & Pocock, he was perhaps influenced by African Studies on dominant clan & dominant lineages.
He observed that ritual status not always give superiority to caste in local hierarchy. Secular forces like economic & political power to plays a role

Criterion of dominant caste

Acc to Sriniwas ; for DC following must
1. Traditional Factors
  - Shall control traditional capital or mean of production – eg. Sizeable amount of cultivable landholding
  - Numerically preponderant, locally & regional
  - High place in local caste hierarchy
  - Political & economic power
  - In 1984 added ; They always have tradition in agri & violence
2. Additional Factors
  - Western Education
  - Jobs in administration
  - Political clout ; control over resource,
Mckin Marriott observed that concept lies on Political power which traditional c/l as Juridical power in village community. This at times also yields religious & quasi divine power to Dominate Castes.

Types

On Basis of Nature
1. Decisive/Cumulative Dominance – Acc to M.N Srinivas – When a caste has all the attributes of dominance, such as economic, political, ritual etc
  - Ex – Brahmin in Shirpuram Village in Tamil Nadu
  - Not common ; mostly different elements are distributed among different castes in village
2. Dispersed Dominance – In North India, dominance is always dispersed.
  - Jats & Gujjars are decisively dominants but they don’t occupy high ritual dominance
  - But when a caste enjoy one form of Dominance, in course of time, it’ll be able to acquire the other form of dominance.

On Basis of Extent
1. Village Level Dominance
2. Regional Dominance

Regional dominance may a better criterion of dominance. As

Due to immense expansion of transport & communication village level dominance is no longer enough to make a caste dominant caste.
Village dominance of particle caste in area surrounded by anagonistsic interest – doesn’t carry much weightage.

Factors in Emergence of New dominant caste

Land reforms, green revolution benefited middle peasants who got ownership of land. Later GR increased value of land → importance of dominant castes
Sanskritisation
Universal adult franchise, Panchayati Raj Institution
Westernization & Modernization- they got education & jobs in administration
Reservation

Process of Emergence of DC

Independence

↓

Demand for equality

↓

Land Reforms & Zamindari Abolition

↓

Benefit to Farming Class

↓ ← Green Revolution

Became Wealthier

↓ ← Numerical strength & Universal Adult Suffrage

Gained Political Power & Formed Pressure Group

↓ ← Reservation

Education & Public Employment

↓ ← Sanskritisation

Elevated social status

↓ ← Panchayati Raj Institution

Emergence of DC

Features/ Power of Dominant Caste

They are very Arrogant & maintains social distance from other castes.
Want the authority to be acknowledged
DC often acts as a reference model to the lower caste group (→ imitate their behaviour, ritual pattern, customs etc. Sanskritization)
- In PB jat landlords considers Brahmins as their servants
- In eastern UP the dominant Thakur landlord make Brahmins cook food except their Kulguru (family priests)
DC of a particular locality set norms, cultural values & regulations for social life & act as protector & watchdog of culture, who violates the norms is severely punished.
The leaders of the locally dominant caste may arbitrate in village disputes. They decide the mode of rewards & punishment. – both intercaste & intracaste through village & caste councils.
- Ex. Anil Bhatt observes how leaders of locally DC act as arbitrators in village disputes
Dominant castes are the main power holders. They influence the political process, Power capture in Panchayats
Hold on society as providers of employment due to land ownership
Formation Caste associations to put forth their motives & maintain unity e.g Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha in UP
- Ghanshyam Shah (1985) points how DC maintain political influence thr caste association.
Economic power – due to dominant position in rular society & control rural economy
- Yogendra Singh observes higher economic status is basic determinant of DC of South India
- Ex – Brahmin in Tottagadde have ownerships of all cash crops, Okkaligas in Wangla & Rajputs in Senapur owns 80% & 82% lands respectively.
Acc to all resources & economic & civil amenities. They also control govt programme implementation.
- Ex – The study “Clientalistic access to employment” by Anirban kar, Alita Nandi shows how affiliates of dominant caste had better access to MGNREGA employment.
Levels of dominance include village & regional dominance

Criticisms

SC Dube – in his work ‘DC & village leadership’ A better understanding of power structure is in terms of dominant individuals & dominant factions rather than dominant castes.
- B/c- Not all members have the wealth power & prestige in a caste & there in exploitation of weaker elements of ones own caste as well.
- Intra-caste unity is absent
Peter Gardner , along with SC Dube – raised serious objection on the very concept of dominant caste
- He reviewed that “dominance” should not be conceptualized in the form of caste only.
- Intra caste unity & articulation in terms of power ( homogeneity of goals within) also necessary for emergence of DC
LouisDumont has claimed that dominance should be considered as a purely secular phenomenon distinct from hierarchy which is purely ritual.
Edmund Leach– criticises Srivas’s approach as too structuralist.
In modern India the concept of Dominant caste is changing- Westernization, Modernization
Dominant caste is not always numerically a preponderant caste. D.N. Majumdar (& Adrian Mayer )observes that the SCs preponderate in many villages. But the people belonging to the upper caste exercise power & authority in such villages.

Sriniwas on Dubey’s Criticism – Dube accept existence of dominant individuals & dominant faction but not dominant cast.

Dominant individuals & Dominant faction owe their dominance to the fact that they are part of dominant caste
It may be observed that most of the leaders of the dominant faction hail from the dominant caste except where two rival castes are striving to estd their dominance.
Dominance of DC is not a local or village level phenomenon. Dominance shell be complete only when it is spread over a substantial region.

Conclusion – Both theoretically & empirically, one finds that Sriniwas never claimed that the concept of dominant caste provided the total explanation for the phenomenon of power in rural India. By & large, the political process & economic development at the micro & meso level definitely Cary the stamp of respective dominant castes.

Dominant Caste & Social Mobility

DC act as reference model for process for process of Sanskritisation. The lower castes tries to imitate rituals or secular attributes of dominant castes
- Kingly Model or Kshyriyasiation by D.F Pocock, where he proposed non-Brahmin DC or kings as reference group
- Rajputisation by Surjit Sinha
- Stephen Bamett also observes such kingly models based on DC in south India
- Milton Singer explains how DC lifestyle becomes route for social Mobility.
A peculiar trend is being where different caste communities are adopting diff. Models
- Diwiji Caste → westernisation
- Lower Caste → Sanskritisation
- Untouchables → Politicisation
clashes of DC & oppressed classes also proves trigger for social mobility movement
- Dalei Benbabaal in her paper “DC & Territory in S.India” explains how clashes with Kamma DC lead to formation of Dalit Mahasabha in Karemchedu Dist.
Impact of landholding on social mobility
- N. India → Middle castes (Jatt, Yadav)
- S. India → Shudras (Reddy, Kamma)
DC also resists movement of Sanskritisation;
- DN Majumdarin his study of Mohana district shows how Sanskritisation movm of Paris was broke by social boycott & coercion imposed by Local DC Thakur

Effectiveness of DC Concept Today

Clientelismin Indian villages is increasing. Thus older patron – client relationship in Jaimani has acquired political clock as observed by S. Anderson in his ‘Clientelism of Indian Village’
- The link b/w patron & politician est a continuum b/w the rural & urban forces.
- Rural patron are vote banks for politicians during election. In return expect favours.
Casteisation of Politicspointed by Aryan Chakravarti in study of Dispura Village where

Rajputs (DC in British times) + Jats (New DC)

↓

Rajputs Negotiated with Jats

↓

Formed councils

↓

Caste Factions / Politics of bargaining

Impact on social transformation : Rajani Kothari in EDW article ‘The Non Party Politics’ caste associations & DC made democracy a playground for corruption, criminalisation, repression of oppressed. Role of state in social transformation has been undermined.
- The member of non dominant caste may be abused, underpaid for work or their women are required to gratify the sexual desires of powerful man in DC
- The conc of members of caste into a ward – a feature of the village India, adds to their sense of security.
Impact on Regionalism – Dallel Benbabaal in her ‘DC & territory in south India’ talks about how Inter-dominant caste rivalry b/w Kamma & Reddy has influence on movm for formation Telangana state
Psychological & Economic Security ; The study “Clientalistic access to employment” by Anirban kar, Alita Nandi shows how affiliates of dominant caste had better access to MGNREGA employment.
Political influence – Susan Anderson found how Marathas influenced lower castes to vote for them of social security benefits.
Impact of class Emergence – Georges Lieten in his “caste in class politics” points that politicisation of local & economic issues emerged a class society within framework of essentially a caste society. Thus, grip of DC is loosing.
Similarly R.K Mukherjee points how ‘class cum caste conflicts’ are emerging due to social oppression of lower caste & economic deprivation of lower class.
As Unifying Factor – The coming of market economy; the declines of traditional economic system (ex Brahman hegemony in Tanjore) caste free occupation & mobilisation of caste groups have resulted in decline fo the traditional political role of castes. Yet we find the caste retains its political significance. Ex in the village , the rank of Noniyas, the salt makers & chamars, the leather -makers jointed hands in opposing the locally dominant upper caste Thakurs (Rajput landlords). Thus , caste which was dividing factor, reshaped itself in the new circumstances to form a unifying factor.

Due to reservation policy, intensification of democratisation, PRI, influence of DC was guessed to shrink. However, as K.L Sharam points him ‘Social str & political change’ that elites & DC have captured the modern instrument of power, thus maintaining influence.

Is Numerical Strength prerequisites for DC ?

Yes : Example in Favour

MN Srinivas → emergence of UAF etc
Andre Beteille in his ‘Caste, class & power’ points that after limited Land Reforms, power became independent of class. Thus Class, caste & power are pretty autonomous in own spheres. With emergence of UAF & PRI, numerical strength became decisive criteria for capturing power machineries.
Yogendra Singh too Support

No : Examples in Against

Adrian Mayer(1958) – dominance is not dominance of no, but power reseted with few individuals in caste, Thus he questions numerical dominance.
DN Majumdar – In Mohana study points though lower caste (Kubbis & Lohars) may be numerically dominance due to control over land
- Also states ; Indian village probably never accepted majority rule. The Feudal India didn’t compromise with numerical strength.

Clientelism in Indian Villages

S. Anderson in his ‘Clientelism in Indian Village’ (2015) refers Clientelism as buying of votes by cadre of political elite in return of delivery of direct benefit to political clients (people)

Clientelism – a social order which depends on relation of patronage; in particular a political approach which emphasis or exploit such relation

Due to fact that support of client is necessary to maintain power of elite
Elite patrons control govt, but provide direct benefit to clients as quid pro non

Arrangement

S. Anderson studies villages in MH & understand power dynamics, especially r/l to Marathas
- He observes ; Clientelism is complex social understanding depending on dense Network of r/l b/w patron & client & their mutual trust that other wil fulfil their demands
- Clientalatist str is general necessary for making vote buying arrangement feasible
- These str is facilitated by presence of Dominate caste which play role of patron. (Marathas in MH)
- He also shows how Clientelism in politics affect economic outcome & distribution
Arun Chakravarti study of Dispur (above diagram & explanation)
Bandhan & Mookherjee (2012) present model of political clientalism & differs it from ‘Elite capture’
- Study in WB : Ruling party used govt resources to win elations → caste of parton plays no role
Anindya Bhattacharya, Anirban kar, Alita Nandi in their paper “Local institution structure & Clientalistic access to employment” shows how affiliates of dominant caste had better access to MGNREGA employment.

Different Forms of Dalit Assertion

Pradeep Bose identified 2 mobility course 1. Movm for consolidation 2. Movm for assertion

Dalit assertion is due to ↑ in unrest among population witnessed in

Politicisation – It started with Ambedkar when ‘Republic Party’ was formed. Today, we have many parties like Bahujan, Samajwadi etc to fight for dalit rights
Reservation – Provided by constitution to safeguard rights. Today it has led to dalit asserting their rights & few higher caste groups thr ‘Desanskritisation’ claiming Dalit identity e.g Jats
Religious – It started with conversion to Buddhism (Narayana Buddhism). However, the new religion has not been instrumental in assertion of Dalit identity.
- Sanskritisation
  - Use of Sanskritisation as tool – early leaders
  - Discarding Sanskritisation & Brahminsm (Ambedkar, Periyar & Phule)
- Case study on ethnography of Maler of Nuru Bora – Dalits face new opposition
  - Earlier it was just oppression by upper caste
  - Now, by upper caste, new religion & from new leaders of own caste.

Education & Employment – due to increased accessibility, they have ensured social mobility. E.g work participation rate 2011 – SC 40.2% & Maler – 43%
Technology – The casteless collective rock band spreading BR Ambedkar‘s ideas thr raps.

However, B.D Sharmain his book “Dalit Betrayed” opines that despite reservation, due to alienation & isolation, Dalits have not integrated with mainstream society. This is indicated in ‘Dalit Panther Mov’, Lynching & Mob Attacks witnessed today.

Ambedkar’s view on caste system & Differences from Mainstream

Dr. BR Ambedkar provides Broken Man’s Theory on caste system. Thus supporting Multiple Theory Hypothesis on origin of caste system like that of SC Roy

In his thesis ‘Caste : Genesis & Development’ wirendr in Journal of Indian Antiquery, he provides following

Origin of caste – Dalit were original inhabitants of India who were then considered as tribe (Dasyus). Due to their defeat in war with Aryans, they ave been deprived of Religious & social rights reduced to status of ‘Broken Man’

Features in a paper by Gail Omvedt ‘Buddhism as a reaction to Brahmanism & Casteism in India provides Ambedkar’s view

Dalits needs to bear their own light in asserting rights as nobody else could help them, he advocated this thr ; Religious conversion to Buddhism, Political empowerment, Economic Development & Education
Villages are primary cause for Reinstating casteism. He described village as ‘Den of Ignorance & sink of localism’ from where Dalit need to get mobility.
Intercaste Marriage need to be promoted to ensure egalitarian society
Class based segregation was guided by achievement motivation, unlike caste segregation which was dividing.

Difference from Mainstream Treatment of caste

Mere conversion to other faith need not lead to annihilation of caste b/c caste has been feature of every religion.
Mobility thr westernisation, modernisation will lead to change in positional hierarchy but str still remains intact.
Thr reservation, ‘Politicisation of caste; caste system with its’ feature remains intact.

Though Ambedkar propagated Annihilation of caste, it still remains intact in Indian society.

Ambedkar’s View on Annihilation of caste

BR Ambedkar in his thesis ‘Caste in modern Times : Genesis & Development’ published in ‘Journal of Indian Antiquary’ state that :

Caste system is feature of Indian society that needs to be abolished in totality. Further he opines that villages in India served as ‘den of ignorance, sink of localism’ that reinstated caste system.
He believed in Annihilation by moving out of Hindu caste system. In his famous speech ‘I will not die Hindu’, he reiterates this value & promotes his followers to convert faith to which is more egalitarian i.e Buddhism to free themselves of oppression of caste.
He believed that Dalit need to keep their own guiding lights & thr political empowerment to ensure mobility.
Caste for Ambedkar needs to be destroyed by promoting exogamy, breaking commensality & introduce restriction.

Case study on impact of Annihilation promoted by Ambedkar in Maler

Studied byNura Bora
Caste system existent even in buddhism
Lack of real empowerment
Despite conversion, all Dalits now have is old god & new god (Buddha)

This retaliation has led to Dalit Panther Movement in 1980s & Dalit are asserting for their own rights.

Caste & Politics

I.P Desai in caste & politics coherence is maintained by retaining status coherence is maintained by retaining status acquired as member of particular caste. Caste & politics are mutually influential to each other & this determines extent to which political power is generated & distributed in rural society.
S.C. Dubey in Caste & Domination & Factionalism – Mutual influxes of caste & politics
Yogendra Singh based on 6 village study in eastern UP three factors – Zamindari, caste association, Village Panchayats are 3 level of power structure in village & are interdependent.
K.L Sharma in ‘Social Structure & Political Change’ : modes of power & social mobility of rural elites examined & proposed that modern rural elites are products of past independent development adult franchise, PRI, spread of education & means of comm.
Rajani Kothari in Politics in India in after introduction of parliamentary democracy & electoral process, the upward mobility is witnessed among lower classes. The numerically preponderant OBCs are now contracting the power structure. Thus nature of caste alliance is changing
Andre Beteille – in Class, Caste & Power – class of neo-rich stratum of peasant emerged after limited land reforms. Power, thus now has become independent of class of greater extent than it was in past. Ownerships of land no longer decisive factor in acquiring the power
T.K Ommen in Political leadership in rular indian 2 ways acquire power in rural structure
1. One’s manipulative tactics
2. Landholding, property, elite position
D.N Dhanagare – in Peasant Movement in India → poor peasants & agri laborers haing large potential for organising revolutionary Movm & thus transformative potential.
Rajni Kothari in EPW article “ The Non Party Politics” association of caste & politics made democracy a playground for corruption, criminalisation, repression & intimidation of large masses of people. Thus role of state in social transformation has been undermined.
Georges Lieten in Caste in Class Politics – politicisation has emerged as trend which resulted in emergence of class society within framework of essentially a caste society.
R.K Mukherjee in his Realities of Agrarian relations in India. Point out that where caste related social depression combined with class wise economic deprivation (Bihar, TN, MH), caste riots happening. Thus these are essentially as caste-Cum- Class conflicts
Rudolph & Rudolph – Indian caste association are no longer in hand of Older traditional leaders, but in newly political emergent class who can harness caste issues for political mobilisation
MSA Rao – in his Social Movm of India – backward caste movements are asserting for higher ex status in rural heartland. However, such collective efforts about change in labour & property relationship & struggle for justice involves capturing political authority.
Louis Dumont – village community is primarily a political society, emblem of traditional economy & polity

Caste, Politics & Economics

Sumant Bhattacharya in his caste, class on politics, study of WB points that radical changes in political process has not lead to establishment of hegemony of rural lower class (proletariant) in politics of village. He asserts that social equality is rooted in economic equality.
H.S Saxena too based on his study of village in RJ concludes that neither technological changes nor govt sponsored programmes of land reforms have significantly altered economic situation of weakest sections in rural India.
R.B Mishra on his study of 4 villages in UP of Akbarpur Tehsil concludes that nature of conflict characterising the diff. Caste in villages has grown out of their styles due to scare resources, power, prestige, influence.
H.S Saxena based on his RJ study, asserts that traditional unity of caste has not given place to unity of class.
Hetukar Jha – in his Social Structure & alignments points out that it was economic & social oppression rather than economic prosperity that was primary force-behind process of caste -Sanskritisation in rural Bihar.

Caste Mobility

Sorokindefines social mobility as ‘transition of individual or social object or value created by human activity from one social position to another.

Caste Mobility– Positional Movement within caste hierarchy

Acc. To Jati Model caste system, there are 5 groups which are arranged in hierarchical manner – diagram

The caste is result of birth. One is also not allowed to have inter-caste marriage. Besides there are various rules & regulations for interaction among diff caste members, however in reality a caste can move …

Views of scholars

Early colonial scholars, like F.G Bailey, to contend that mobility was absent in the social system of traditional India which was said to have a closed system (ascriptive-oriented) of social stratification.
However scholar (Sociologists) starting with GS Ghurye have highlighted flexibilities in caste system others are MNS, Yogendra Singh & mentioned its was historically presents.
K.S Singh remarks that in rigid framework of caste system, some routes are still open for social & cultural mobility.
M.N. Srinivas too has said that while traditional Indian society was stationary in character, it did not preclude the mobility, upward as well as downward, of individual castes in the local hierarchy. He explained it thr the processes of sanskritisation & westernisation.
In recent times, social mobility as a process has become more active.

Levels of caste Mobility – KH Sharma Considers 3 level of caste mobility

Mobility of minority of families within a caste
- Due to differential status of families due to acquisition of land & edu etc
- It is horizontal mobility or Srinivas term this as positional mobility
Mobility of group of majority of families of group
- Corporate Mobility involving changes regarding to ‘Purity & Pollution
- Sanskritisation acc to Srinivas comes in this.
Mobility of Individual within family
- Mobility of individual by factors like education & sanskritaization
- This mobility is achievement oriented without necessary change in family position in caste

Vertical & horizontal– P. Sorokin on social mobility.

Horizontal– Agri labourer migrating to urban area to become construction labourer. No change in status, only role

from the 3rd decade of the 20th century (1930) onwards, caste system could not remain rigid b/c of the processes of industrialisation, urbanisation, spread of education, enactment of some legislative measures, and social movements of several social reformers.

Types of Caste Mobility

Upward Caste Mobility – Low to High in position ; factors through

Sanskritisation – M.N. Srinivas explained status mobility in caste in 1952 through the process of sanskritisation & westernisation.- “Social Change in Modern India”
- However, M.N. Srinivas has claimed that untouchables are never able to cross the line of Sudra and move to ‘higher’ caste.
- Ex: Coorgs of Mysore- Brahmin model (Lingayats), Patidars Kshatriya model Shah and Schroff, Teli Vaishya model, Untouchables Todas and Kshatriya
- Factors that have made sanskritisation possible are industrialisation, occupational mobility, & developed means of communication, spread of literacy, western technology, & awakening among the lower castes to give up polluting occupations and evil customs and social practices.
- Scholars like Daniel Lerner, Harold Gould, Milton Singer and Yogendra Singh prefer ‘modernisation’ to ‘westernisation’.
Westernisation – by Srinivas, seen in communities like Brahmins, Paris, Kayathas, Baidyas
- As a result of cultural contact with western society for longer period, many indi of lower caste have been able to change their caste status
- It is not group mobility as in case of Sanskritisation.
Kshatriyasation – Kshatriya model of Sanskritisation given by D.F. Pocock in his article The Movement of caste. He proposed that sometimes kings are reference model than Brahmins thus Kingly Model
- Shown in Kunvi traditional middle run peasant caste of GJ to the new honourable status of Pattidar
Rajputisation – by Surjit Sinha in central Indian tribes
Mobility thr Warfare – ex Shivaji Maratha
- Pauline Kolenda– the most effective way to rise in the caste system was by the acquisition of territory either through conquest or by peaceful occupancy of sparsely populated or empty land.
- K. M. Panikkar believes that the last true kshatiyas were Nandas He has said that “since the 5th C B.C., every k/n royal family has come from a non-Kshatriya caste” including the rajputs, Maurya & Marathas
- M. N. Srinivas has given the ex of Shivaji. He overthrew the Moghul rule & est. his own empire. His caste, the Maratha, was considered to be of Sudra varna. So Shivaji went thr a religious rite of transition into Kshtriyahood. Along with Shivaji’s rise in varna status, his caste, the Marathas, also came to have Kshatriya rank.
Service of Rulers – Jatis whose members served either Hindu or non-Hindu rulers attained higher varna rank.
- Kayasthas, as scribes for land records of khailjis, many martial races in British army. – were intially lower in caste, now in twice born.
Political power & Economic power – elevation of Gonds into Rajgondas, Marathas by acquiring power
Politicisation – Use of politics (& political caste associations), covers securing govt benefits & representation on legislative & political bodies. Some ex which may be given in this connection are: Mahars of MH, Nadars of TN, & Reddys.
- Mahars of MH- Ambedkar organised them into a political force & formed a SC Federation which was ultimately used as a political tool for achieving the goals of social equality & social mobility.
- Mahars, who were regarded as untouchable, worked as watchmen, messengers, sweeping roads, carrying death notices to other villages and so forth. In 1937, Ambedkar est. Independent Labour Party which gave majority of tickets to Mahars.
- Since then, thr the Republic Party as well as through Parliament & Vidhan Sabha elections of 1946, 1951 and 1956, the Mahars have established themselves as an important political force in MH politics.
Elite Emulation – by Ownen Lynch in which he observed that post -independent Parliamentary democracy & org of diff political parties brought new paths for upwards mobility.
Through Caste associations– the Nadars of TN were a low caste of toddy tapers who acquired higher status thr the efforts of their caste association Nadar Mahajana Sangam | Other ex: Gujarat Kshatriya Sabha, Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha
Other causes – Social mobility has also been explained in terms of
- decline of jajmani system, emergence of modern occupations (Sharma, 1974),
- decline of untouchability and the pollution-purity principle (Kolenda, 1986), and
- education, state policy of protective discrimination, and social movements
Tribal absorption– tribe caste continuum within caste system- Eg; Meenas of Rajasthan
Assigning Higher Status to Castes by the Census Commissioners in the British Period – Recording jati identities in census enumerations from 1891 to 1931, many middle & low castes made efforts to get themselves registered as members of the twice-born varnas.
- These claims reached a peak in 1901 census when Herbert Risley, the Census Commissioner, tried to rank all castes.
- The Nadars of Tamil Nadu declared themselves as Nadar Kshatriyas in 1921 census
- Evidence was offered from myths and history for each claim. Some of them were sustained but most of them were rejected for e.g Kurmi Cultivators of Bihar & Teri caste of wanted to be Vaishya
Other Factors – Hypergamy, Affirmative action

Downward Caste Mobility – High to low in position

Tribalisation & Pseudotribalism/ Depeasantisation– concept by S.L Kaliwhen he studied Jaunsar Bawar Region (UP) & Basra Region (MP) & observed how UP Brahmins stays in Jausar tribal areas, eat meat, drink liquor, consort with tribal women & gradually adopt their way of life
- Mishra & Behura explains similar in tribal Orissa for 3 castes – blacksmiths, potter & weaver. Setting in tribal area.
- Also as Castes of Bastar district of Chattisgarh have adopted tribal life style.
- Recently Gujjar community which belong to OBC category has been trying to acquire tribal status.
Desanskritization– concept of DN Majumdar where he rejects Vertical Capillary in idea of Sanskritisation
- for benefiting from reservation policy- Jats demanding OBC status despite being Kshatriya
- Recent Maratha agitation in MH & Patel agitation in GJ
Bhanginisation – by Shyamlal (1997)

The traditional aspect of tribalization is defined by K.S. Singh as ‘acceptance of tribal mores, rituals & beliefs by incoming communities. & explains that this downward mobility is driven by social, cultural & motivational factors

Satish Sabberwal in his Status, Mobility & Network in Punjab’ concludes that downward mobility is generally unplanned, non-deliberate & innovational.

Caste Mobility in Occupational Perspective

A. Mayer – Rajputs of Ramkheri include people who followed both higher & lower occupation from economic point of view
K.L Sharma – occupational mobility is much predominant in upper caste compared to lower & intermediate castes
S.C Dube – in Sharmirpeth study observed occupations subdivided
- Left hands – inferior e.g Shoe repair
- Right hand – more superior (carpenter, barber)
Kathleen Gough – frequent changes in occupation is by Supply -demand factor influence
F.G Bailey (1955) – Bisipara Village in Orissa – witnessed changes due to coming of land into market due to British rule → disturbed caste hierarchies & traditional power str of village (which went outside of village)
- Land reform : Permanent settlement → land came into market → ceased to tied to caste & attacked caste monopolies over Land. Ex Brahman dominance in Tanjore, TN
- Yardstick to measure local prestige
- Division of wealth no longer followed the same lines as caste division
Advent of British → new economic opportunity (plantation, town, cities) → money economy → enabled eco r/l to be governed by market conditions as opposed to inherited status.
- Intro of Mercantilism & becoming of village , part of global economic system
Jajmani system lost most of its insularity due to market economy, daily wage & hired labor

Caste Mobility by Democratic Processes

M.S.A Rao – in his Education, Social, Stratification & Mobility cites now Ahirs got education & westernisation & claimed Yadava status
F.G Bailey – in Bisipara study stated that ritual & economic + Political status go hand in hand. He cites ex of status of upliftment of lower liquor selling castes
Anil Bhatt – analyses impact of democratic, constitutional & competitive process on mobility & concludes that importance of ascriptive ritual status as criteria of mobility has decreased & significance of achievable criteria of status like education & occupation have ↑.

Thus, caste Mobility is social reality in Indian Hindu society, which was thought to be closed or static society. Choice of mobility models differs region, class & motivation wise.

Mobility is there since time immemorial. But in ancient & medieval period it was in upward direction but presently it is mainly in the downward direction.

Changes in Caste Mobility

Caste & Rituals Status – Rikshshawallash of Lucknow study
Caste & Economic sphere – British advent → Jajmani breakdown → powers str changed
Caste & Political Sphere –
- social stratification like caste rests upon unequal distribution of power b/w status group having definite positions in prestige hierarchy → to maintain this must be able to control the m/c of coercion. How ? Due to territorial limitation of Pre-British political system. (I.e under territory of diff chieftains/ rajas → so at village level caste Panchayats as self govt → imposed limits on caste ties | thus cultural & political boundaries overlapped
- British rules set castes free from territorial limitations i.e Civil & Penal code, 1860 took away the power of caste Panchayats. Also equality before law (nature of wrong don’t affected by caste)
- Advent of democracy & decentralised politics in form of 3 ties PRI saw politics carried down to grassroots level. Caste became prominent variable in electoral politics → demand of org. Party system → coalition of caste → subcaste & subdivision in subcaste fund an active filed of engagement in village politics.
- Democratic decentralisation & UAS – protected interest of backward classes in edu, employment & poltical life against the dominance of traditionally powerful castes .

Secularisation of Social Mobility

It simply implies that what previously regarded as religious ceases to be such. With increasing rationality & education in society, notion of purity & pollution as determinant of status & ranking has weakened. This new law & constitutionality adopting equality as basic fundamental principle served to abolish discrimination based on caste.

Anil Bhatt observes that ‘ascriptive based’ caste status & ranking has declined & replaced by achievement oriented & competitive process.

Facets of Seculatization

Education –
- Education instilled new principles of Justice, equality & liberty which instinged educated elites to fight caste discrimination.
- Deep impact of pattern of mobility & created new middle class
- Open new mobility pattern for SC, ST, OBCs proposed by reformers like Ambedkar, Phule
- Unequal access created cleavage also as lead to unequal mobility patterns.
SC’s & OBC’s – 2 main model of mobility ; Through
1. Conflicts – Phule, Ambedkar, Periyar by formation of caste councils & federation movm like Dalit panther to unite all
  - Pradeep Boss indented 2 mobility
    1. Movm for consolidation – caste association & follow Sanskritisation, census mode
    2. Movm for assertion – Economic grievance & deprivation
2. Protective Discrimination – benefited only small sections, thus resulted further division n same caste.
Industrialisation & Urbanisation – write general point like erosion of P&P + case studies from caste mobility thr occupation
Democratic Process – case studies from caste mobility thr democratcy

Caste System & Contemporary Society

Introduction – Caste is not evaporating or dying away but it undergoing adaptation process. The trends look diff in urban & rural areas due to variation in social change.

In Urban Area – except endogamy, all features undergone alteration

dilution of occupational specialisation e.g leather & footware industry
No or Hardly any restriction on commensality & Connubiality (e.g catering business by untouchables)
- Harold Gould – Rickshawwal’s case study
Settlement pattern changed – diff caste living together
Increasing caste consciousness due to uncertainties of life, frustration, reservation (e.g Patel (GJ), Marathas (MH)
Increase role of caste in politics (↓ ideological politic) – Rajni Kothari’s study – Politicisation of caste |
Intercaste violence e.g Bhima Koregaon Jahanadad (Bihar), Faridabad burning of Lower caste women in 2015
Intra caste conflicts due to uneven distribution of fruits of dev within caste among weaker sections.
Blending of class consciousness in caste e.g well educated chamars from UP consider themselves as diff from others of same caste.

Rural Area

commensality restriction loosened at great extend
Hold of untouchability loosened
Occupational mobility
Caste association as presses groups (Ghanshyam shah)
Caste association → fusion of subcastes
Growth of intra caste factions due to differential support of political parties
Change in power structure e.g Brahmins lost dominance in South India
Harold Gould : though modification but rural caste system continued in traditional form, hierarchical, locally integrated, ritually specials endogenous.

Conclusion – It is very clear now that caste as a dynamic reality of Indian society . CS has undergone adaptive chang – caste still prevails in traditional form (has accompanied changes & in the process has continued to survive the onslaught of time) in rural areas. But shown flexibility in urban areas with exception of politicisation of caste.

The characteristics of adaptability to forces of change have been a feature of the caste in the past & it continues to remain its main characteristic even today. This pattern of change therefore constitutes an element of continuity of this system.

The changes introduced dttring the British period and post-independent India have witnessed the changing functions of caste and how it has continued to exist as a social institution unique to India.

Other way to express the Answer

Caste & Rituals Status – Rikshshawallash of Lucknow study
Caste & Economic sphere – British advent → Jajmani breakdown → powers str changed
Caste & Political Sphere –

Imp way to see the continuity of caste – when the new force of socio-economic, political & educational changes came, it was the already powerful, wealthy upper castes, such as the Brahmans, Rajputs & the Vaishyas who benefited initially from these changes.

The Brahman sections responded first to English edu & therefore, benefited from political & administrative power.
The same pattern is visible in the commercial sectors too. The great business houses like Birlas, Dalmias etc belonged to traditional commercial castes.
In banking the caste like the Chettiars of South est. themselves i the modern system of banking & commerce that was an extension of their traditional Occupations.

Future of Caste System

Introduction – Andre Betielle– Indias destiny is not caste in stone, while scholars like Gail Omvedt disagree and point to continued caste entrenchment | or | MN Srinivas in his last public speech at ‘National institute of Advanced studies in 1999 opined that caste system will gradually fade away in India

Historical changes that have weakened caste system due to land reforms, democratic process, sanskritization, westernisationm

Modernization Westernization- reduced caste norms & consciousness
Occupation- Jajmani System- declined ;
Social intercourse moved beyond caste boundaries
State policies- reservation, democratic decentralisation, untouchability largely tackled, equality
Visible changes includes
- Removal of restriction on commensality
- Dilution of occupation specialisation

Things that haven’t changed

Harold gould– rural ares despite many modifications the traditional caste system prevails and in urban areas caste persists thr complex networks of interest groups
Endogamy (Only 5.8% intercaste marriages acc to Census 2011, not change over 40 years)
Ascription, ritual functions
untouchability- manual scavenging

At the same time- caste system has shown remarkable flexibility & taken on new functions while retaining certain old ones

Dominant Caste
TCC, Caste in other Religions
Politicisation of caste- as described by Rajni Kothari
Casteisation of Politics- Bahujan Samajvadi Party
Caste associations Nadar Mahajan Sangham- to further political and economic interests of dominant groups within castes
State policy- caste based affirmative action- Demand for reservation by dominant castes- mandalisation and desanskritization- demand for SC status
Emergence of Urban caste consciousness (all india mathur sangh, Akhil Bhartiya Brahmin Mahasabha)
Flexibility in caste system- neutral occupations– open to all castes- service sector
Diaspora caste consciousness– UK had proposed to enact an anti- caste discrimination law, Tribe caste continuum

Acc to Louis Dumont – changes are organisation in nature than structural

Ghanshyam Shah & NK Bose (superstructure)

What keeps caste Alive

It provides opportunity to gain power
Makes social mobility possible
Division of labour
Social – psychological security

Conclusion – Thus the Caste system has weakened in some features but persists and has new functions which means that the continuation of caste is probable in times to come.

Stand of 3 schools

There are 3 views about the future of caste system

Evaluation of theses 3 schools A.J Toynbee, T.H Marshal , P. Kondara Rao

Caste system to be replaced by Varna System

Most imp proponent of school is Gandhi Ji
They propounded that varna system should be reinstated which will allow proper division of labour in society.

Critics

same family have diff occupation , hence difficult to assign Varnas
Varna system doesn’t consider untouchables
Prohibits inter-varna m’ age, food,
M.N Sriniwas – Varna itself is not an empirical reality.

so, not, possible practically, even if accomplished will serve no purpose.

Modification of Caste System

It states that amalgamate server also subcastes having cultural unity & economic similarity into one large group. Thus caste will be an equal footing to be consolidated → will lead to casteless society by edu, employment

Critics

tried in Bombay but results were disrupting → each subcaste developed its notion of superiority & inferiority
Amalgamated group have internal feeling of exclusiveness leading to militancy

Thus this method will create unhealthy atmosphere for national consciousness.

Abolition of Caste System

Main proponent – Ghurye, Ambedkar
- Asirvatham – whatever use of caste might have in past, it is hindrance to progress today & thus must be opposed it tooth & nail.
Constitution has modified caste system to great extend (eg. A17)
Also, various castes have changed their status thus system can be easily abolished.

Critics

No alternative given
Disruption of public order with loss of sense of unity within caste.
D.N Majumdar’s View
- Evils like untouchability are just broken & poisoned finger which needs to be amputated not the whole hand (caste system)
- Exploitation of one caste by another should be done away with, not the whole system.
Bailey – caste systems is organic in nature in india & thus can’t be abolished

Harold Gould’s Assessment can be added

Conclusion – as Yogendra Singh observes that caste as a institution has shown unexplainable elasticity with rise of democratic political institutions. Thus it has capacity to adopt change due to force of modernisation (Modernity of tradition). So as long as caste performs function of welfare state in India & provide common bonds of kinship ties, pressure groups & alliances, it can be assured of continued existence.

Can Caste exist in Indian of Tomorrow ?

Though small elite section desires extinction of caste system, but for majority of population, caste is part of their social identity & existence. Caste provides certain cultural homogeneity, though cultural evils & exploitative elements are now rejected thr fundamental law of land (by constitution)

The principle of caste is so entrenched in socio-political sphere that it is accepted as very principle of politics. Horizontal solidarity increasing day be day with growth of communication technology.

However, change is seen in attitudes. Supreme Court calling of other yardstick than caste for reservation backwardness, 10% EWS quota transcoding caste barriers. Rise of class system based on economic system is challenging caste system.

But, as long as caste performs function of welfare State in India & provides common interest in political-economic lives of people it can be assured of it’s existence in modern India.

Diff Approach : Changes in Caste System

In order to better appreciate whether caste system survives in the modern society, we need to look at some fundamental changes taking place within CS. Apart from ideological changes, has also demonstrated changes in its org, str & functions.

Transition from closed to open systems of Mobility
- Closed – Based on cumulative inequality i.e higher caste implies high class & consequently high power.
- Open – inequality of caste, class & power are dispersed. → ↑ avenues for social mobility
- Due to modernisation, Parli democracy, constitutional, voting, modern political system, new market forces, S&T dev
- As every vote counts → imperative for leader to get the allegiance of people. → Numerical power & caste identity became imp
- Andre Beteille (1966) in his study of Caste, Class & Power Changing Patterns of Stratification in Tanjore village (Sripuram),
  - edu’s virtual monopoly in of Brahmans in pre-British period → now, open both in principle & practise (for both Non Brahmins & Adi-Dravidas ) → compete on more equals terms with Brahmans for white collar jobs. → help to participate in political matters more equally.
  - In village, land had come into market → enabled Non Brahmins to buy → free from caste str of caste (Beteille 1966)
  - His’ Conclusion : change in distribution of power was the most racial changa in the traditional social str.
  - So New leader depend many factors for power in addition to caste. → New org, at least formally free from caste, providing new base to power → altered, if not weakened role of caste in the political area.
Caste & Modern Political Dynamics – unlike, the European experience, political democracy in India din’t emerge as natural development of ideas, values and technologies. In fact, the notion of political democracy was adopted by the national leaders to serve the people of India in the best way possible.
- Thus, the values and attitudes, which went with this form of polity, had to be inculcated in its people.
- The new political order believes in the ideology of universalism and in principle rejects the demands of caste. However, in practice it has accommodated a variety of interest, in action to those of caste.
- Caste has, in fact, come to terms with the democratic political process. Political conflicts can almost be seen as conflicts between caste groups or caste alliances. The beginning of political consciousness on caste lines is evident in references made to caste sabhas or caste associations. The reason for its development can be seen in the fact that politics being a competitive enterprise, its purpose is the acquisition of power for realization of certain goals
- Parties & movements mobilise various social status groups as resources for political objective. Ex selection of candidate based oon caste
- Fostered growth of equity by making indian less separate & more alike – due to electoral system numerical strength. Ex caste associations/Federation
Emergence of Caste Associations – Rudolph & Rudolph (1967) defined them as para communities which enable members of caste to purse social mobility, political power & economic advantage.
- Functions – serves the Indian society by both levering the sacred & hierarchical caste order & also replacing it.
- Like voluntary org in compare to traditional caste
- Contribute to fundamental structural & cultural change in Indian society by providing an adaptive institution in which both the traditional as well as modern features of society can’t meet & fuse.

In the ‘final· analysis we see that caste is loosing the functions, norms, and structures it once had and acquiring new ones to suit the new demands arid emerging social conditions. It is today serving the ritual & occupational goals of traditional society more as well as it is helping Indian society to transform itself from an ascriptive, hierarchical and closed system to one which is achievement oriented, relatively egalitarian and open (Rudolph and Rudolph 1967).

Scholarly Opinion of Future of Caste System

Andre Betielle- Indias destiny is not caste in stone, while scholars like Gail Omvedt disagree and point to continued caste entrenchment

Caste & Polity

Rudolph & Rudolph – Indian peasants found caste as traditional social arrangement to represent & rule themselves. thus the system show no signs of disappearance & will persist till democratic policy functions (Modernity of tradition : Political development in India) Thus Rudolph believes that caste has attached peasants to political democracy in same way as ethnicity attached ethnic minorities to American political process. However, Rudolph also sees trend of rise of equality, within caste
Yogendra Singh – observes that caste as a institution has shown unexplainable elasticity with rise of democratic political institutions. Thus it has capacity to adopt change due to force of modernisation (Modernity of tradition)
I.P Desai – in caste & politics coherence is maintained by retaining status coherence is maintained by retaining status acquired as member of particular caste. Caste & politics are mutually influential to each other & this determines extent to which political power is generated & distributed in rural society.
Rajani Kothari – in Politics in India polics introduced caste alliance within electoral democracy. Thus, caste is now more a political institution than social institution.
Ghanshyam Shah – rise of caste association

Caste & Economics

F.G Bailey – caste is a organic institution in India & show little sings of disappearance
Kathleen Gough – Limiting than determining
Case studies in caste mobility

Caste & Society

Dubey – in his paper ‘Ranking of caste in Telangana village’ opines that caste renting in Shamirpeth is along ritual purity & pollution. It is also determined by traditions & myths. Since caste is a ascribed system. Thus caste will persist till it continues ascribed status.
Muller – more than 1-1/2 century ago (1820) opined that caste can’t be abolished in India & to attempt it world be most hazardous operations that was performed in political body. As a religious institution, caste will die, as a social institution it will live & improve.
M.N Srinivas – in paper ‘Future of caste system’ observes that horizontal solidarity of caste is expanding on Expenditure of vertical solidarity due to modernisation. However, in his last public speech in 1999, Srinivas says ‘caste system will eventually die in India.”
Kolenda – traditional caste system of occupational specialisation, inter-depending caste, purity & pollution customs show signs of disappearance. However, she also observes that it is indeed unlikely that social str which is organising ritual, economic & political life of people for thousands of years will vanish in few decades.
Narmadeswar Prasad. -in his study of industrial, non-industrial & rural areas shows that 40% reports equality of edu opportunities, 35% intercaste marriage, 12% removal of untouchability & 13% treatment as equals. Thus there are progressive sing of change.
N.K Bose – superstructure of caste is being adaptive

Caste & Ideology (or Individual0

Harold Gould – with his study of rickswallas in Lucknow shows how practise of caste continues in private sphere even though it is not in public sphere. I.e the commensality aspect has disappeared but the connubium yet survived inspite of all other changes.
- Rural India – caste, despite modification, is persisting in its traditional form, as a system of hierarchically graded, locally integrated, occupationally & ritually specialised endogamous strata.
- Urban India – caste persisting in complex networks of interest groups preserved thr endogamy & legitimised by religion.

Thus , in both the cases, it is extremely viable social institution which is retaining it’s old uses & developing new ones for adoption.

A.M Shah – in his ‘caste in 21st century’ opines that caste as a system is more or less dead, however individual caste is flourishing. Thus caste has acquired metaphysical forms & deepen the minds of people. The caste is no more a idea or value, but Matter of interpretation i.e ‘State of Mind’ ex – even caste system collapsed, endogamy remains.

Tb carry on any civilization men must specialize their work in complex ways and exchange their products & services in a regular manner. That is, they are interdependent and they follow characteristic order of interdependence.

This is scarcely a new revelation; but in studying the people of India it is especially important to clarify the actual as well as the purported in interdependence.

Such relations should be reliable, enduring & trustworthy but they should be flexible, manipulate & adaptable.

The two kinds of qualities militate against each other. If a relationship is easily begun and readily terminated, it is not likely to be enduringly reliable. If it is endowed with an aura of durability, it can’t readily be adapted to changing circumstances.

The traditional specialisation of a villager follows the specialisation assigned to his jati, which covers preferred, permitted, forbidden occupations. preferred, permitted and forbidden occupations. The traditional modes of exchange are the counterparts of this specialisation in village society they entail both contract and status relations.

Indian villages have traditionally included both kinds of interdependence in their social repertoire. Some relationships have been contractual, limited, and flexible through the use of money, barter, and markets. The other relationships have been broad and durable. Villagers define kinship relations as more broadly supportive and enduring than are most others and see jati as a unit whose members are or could be kinsmen.

Jajmani relations provide for non-kinship interdependence in ways that nevertheless have some of the same qualities of reliability and endurance. These relations are guided- and enforced by villagers acting in their capacities as jati members, but the actual exchanges are made between villagers acting as members of their respective families.

Tribal peoples in India remained in smaller, less productive groups because, for one reason, they did not have as effective ways of relating to non-kinsmen.

The solution that was developed in Indian civilisation remained in use for many centuries, until the impact of modern influences became felt. One response to the Influences was to shift more exchanges to contractual relations and so to amplify traditional side of economic activities. But villagers have been inclined to continue with at least some jajmani like relations for the broader, more personal , & supportive ,bonds that many want to keep.

Jajmani System

W.H Wiser, with first anthropological study of the system (on Karimpur village of UP) , coined term Jajmani System in his ‘The Hindu Jajmani System (1936)’ says it to be Economic particularism & described is as ‘Interfamilial & intergenerational relationship.’

Harold Gould describes it as interfamilial & inter-caste relationship pertaining to patterning of super-ordinate & subordinate relation b/w patrons & supplier of services
Louis Dumont : JS is ritual expression rather than economic arrangement. Or say religious expression of interdependence
Yogendra Singh describes Jajmani as system of reciprocity
Manderbaum argues that JS operate at family level.
Socio-economic basis of hindu caste system & an integral part of agrarian social str india.

Explanation – it is essentially Agriculture based system of production & distribution/exchange of goods & services b/w members of different caste (landowning higher castes & landless services castes). It provides for non-kinship interdependence wherein each caste is expected to give certain specific services to family of other caste.

There exists a patron-client b/w Jajman (Service receiver) & kamin (providers)

occupationally specialised k/n as Artisan castes such as blacks smith, gold smiths weakens etc etc + traditional landless untouchables constitute Agricultural labours = service caste & thr Jajmani got linked to landowning dominant caste; which maintain a paternalistic attitude of superiority towards them

Characteristics of Jajmani System

Permanency/Durable – No breakage of relations – as linked may be inherited on both sides
- S.C Dubey – permanency not due to difficulty in dismissing relation, but to find a alternative
- S.S Nehru – He cites example where law was made so that no iron smith can leave village.
Hereditary – Acc to N.S. Reddy, Right of Jajmani are considered to be proprietary.
- Father to son ; if no son → husband of daughter
Goods against Services – Kamin is paid in kind ; amount depend on nature of service.
- Oscar Lewis show in his Study of Rampur
Peace & Contentment – Acc to W.H Wiser, Kamins feels sense of Security → free from worry of finding employment.
Exclusive – carry out relations with specified families only (usually one)
Multiple – families of village official or village servants, watchman , maintain with whole village rather …
Governed by traditions & caste Panchayats – Acc to S.S Nehru – Law made by caste Panchayats ; punishment, boycott, collective pressure (withholding payment, betting & other harassment)
- Enforcement : Coercion & consensus
- Coercion element of r/l reduced as power of local dormant jati has been reduced as their village dependence can move away easily.
Other characteristics
- Feudalistic nature
- No cash transactions
- Exclusive relation

Functions of Jajmani System

E. Leach (1960) – Division of labour & economic interdependence of castes.
Harold Gould (1985) – distribution of produce in exchange of service
William Wiser (1967) – Making indian village as Self sufficient entity
Ensure Ritual Services readily (esp Life cycle ritual) –
- In village of Lukhnow district, marriage in family of Thakurs, the dominant landowners, involves formal participation of families from ten of the 14 Jatis represented in village.
- Landowner in village of Poona distict keep it up for only Ritual services ; also as rented can’t trusted to do their ritual work thoroughly if no long standing ties.
Maintain Prestige of high castes
Provides Stable workforce for Sustainable rural economy.
Helps maintaining other systems like Caste System, Joint Family ; Ritual & social order
Help in Personal Emergencies – financial, social or Factional contest & struggles

Exploitative or Egalitarian ?

Exploitative

Beidelman (1959) – Jajman = exploiter & system stands feudalistic in nature
- Case Study – Jajman oppress Kamin : Opter & Singh in their study of JS in eastern India : concluded that Jajman decided payment to kamin based on valuation, hence all kamin were not treated in egalitarian manner.
Tyranny of Dominant Caste – case study – Pauline Kolenda in her study of Rajputs of Khalapur : Jajman valued Kamin when there was need of manual labour in sugar mill, with advent of modernisation → need declined → Kamin removed.
No choice is given as relations are inherited
Untouchables can never differ Jajmani obligation & can’t quit. Kamin remains Kamin
Higher castes refuse to provides services to lower castes.
Oscar Lewis in his study of Rampur : JS transferred from system of personal relationship to instrument of exploitation of Kamin by Jajman
D.N Majumdar – found Miserable condition of Kamin & continuous harassment & trouble by upper caste.

Egalitarian

as good are exchanged with service
W.H Wiser in study of Karimpur – JS framework of Reciprocity & Unity in India.
Specialisation of Occupation & Interdependence – as J&K can’t deny each other thus economic security
Harold Gould (1987) – system doesn’t rest upon simple dichotomy of rice vs poor rather arises from religious dichotomy of pure vs impure. Thus, it’s mutual wise of Jajman & kamin to practise some rituals & avoidance of impurity
Louis Dumont – Basic form of Division of labour
- System corresponding to Prestation & counter prestation by which all castes are bound together.
Henry Orenstein – enable Kamin to get certain services from Jajman which are otherwise difficult to obtain.

Changing Trend : Factors

market Forces & role of state – expanding means of transport & communication, MSP ; Minimum wage act; planed economic dev →deliberate & planed efforts to link erstwhile self subsistence village economy to regional & national market → capitalistic transformation in agri sector. → change in mindset → surplus → contractual r/l rather than subsistence
Industrialisation & urbanisation (Monetised economy, employment, chep services) also → hardly any need for functional interdependence.
Modern education → employment
Constitutional & legal safeguard (Manual Scavenger Act, 2013)
Political mobilisation of Dalit & backwards → serious blow
Technology innovation (safety razor self shaving – no need of barber, factory utensils – no need of potter) | rural artisan caste were literally made to competent with machines. → rendered jobless → migration to urban center or became agri Labourer
Green revolution & land reforms – land to landless

Yet it seems true that whatever the weaker sections gained, the new economic policy & globalisation threatens to take away from them.

Contemporary case Study

Research by Human right watch b/w Nov 2013 & July 2014 in GJ, MP, HR, RJ → how manual scavenging still persists in its’ ugliest form & how traditional Jajmani system has provided explanation for its continuance.
D. Narasimha Reddy, A. Amarinder Reddy in their study of impact of MGNREGA on rural labour market → concluded that MANREGA provided better deals → thus loosing fabric of intercaste r/l & Jajmani
Sabyasachi Tripathi & Hardeep kaur (2017) in their analysis of Rural -Uran migration pointed out disintegration of JS in rural holds.
Bhaise Sanjay Devidas, Dr. SR Chaudhari (2011) in their research on displace village in Jalgaon due to Hattnar Irrigation project observed that old social morphology was weakened in displaced village.

Variant of J.S| Regional variations

E.b Harper in study of Todaddagul in Malnad ;
- Two transaction
  - Jajmani
  - Malnad system – of Jajman with extra jajmani workers → economic

Primary & Secondary Civilisation

Culture has two aspects : reality / present & past which is continuing tradition. Tradition is rooted in civilisation or civilisation consists of tradition.

Introduction- Robert Redfield, a American Anthropologist, was pioneer in giving first logical scientific definition of civilisation. He is aka Father of ‘Civilisation school of Anthropological Though’. With help of worthy pupils like McKim Marriot, Mitoon Singer, Oscar Lewis, he estd study of civilisation in America

Redfield & Singer (1954) differentiated b/w Primary & Secondary Civilisation

Primary Civilisation	Secondary Civilisation
• Orthogenetic (Indigenous evolution)• evolves thr indigenous fold cultures• Redfield & Singer : Indian & Chinese civilisations are good examples	• Heterogenetic (contact with other cultures & civilisation) • product of external influence on primary• Steward : Puerto Rico civilisation (Spanish Indian African influence)

Such differentiation has given rise to new approach → National Character Study

MN Srinivas – First Indian to apply this approach to understand Sanskritised & Non Sanskritisatised Cultures

FolK Society

Any small, unlettered society with homogenous cultural traditions & religious orientation rather than secular. Such societies exhibit strong sense of solidarity.

As described by Redfield

Behaviour is → traditional, spontaneous, uncritical personal
No legislation or habit or experiment & reflection of intellectual end
Kinship – unit of action
Scared prevails over secular
Economy is one of status, rather than market | & Self Sufficient Economy
Maintains contact with centres of intellectual ideas & their evolution is k/n as Civilisation

Urban Society

Community having higher population as well as density, characterised by functional specialisation. In filed of industry, occupation & services, has complex division of labour.

dominance of educated elites → their legitimacy due to “keeper of sacred text”

Peasant Society

Society in b/w folk & urban communities.
Redfield, in his landmark work Peasant, Society & Culture (1956) described 3 most important features :
1. Highly reverent attitude towards land
2. Acceptance of agri as noblest, best & ideal job
3. Industrious attitude where people demonstrate firm belief in Division of labour
Other Feature
- Family – primary unit
- Land & Agri – Main source of livelihood
- Distinctive & traditional culture
- Dominated by outsiders
sees agri, not as enterprise, but as way of life.

Folk Urban Continuum

Introduction- Term coined by Robert Redfield in his Folk Culture of Yucatan based on study in Yucatan province of Mexico.

Body – Define about types of society (as ↑ but in limited way)

Redfield’s fieldwork in Yucatan. 4 types of communities
- Task (Folks)
- Chankom (Peasant S.)
- Dizta (town S)
- Marida (city S)
Puts Marida & Taski on two extreme poles

Extent of variations & similarity
- greater cultural similarity b/w Marida & Dizta and Chankom & Taski
- Little cultural similarity b/w Dizta & chankom
- Great cultural variation b/w Marida & Taski
Conclusion of Study
- No known society should be exactly same as placed on extreme poles
- Continuum b/w two poles → F – U continuum
- No clear line of demarcation b/w societies.
- Cultural dev b/w folk & peasant, peasant & town, town & city is described as continuum
- F-U continuum also explains mutual adoption of cultural traits b/w both community
- Same can be applied to study of simple & complex societies.
Critic by Oscar Lewis
- Cultural changes may not due to F-U continuum but ↑ or ↓ of heterogeneity of elements
- Neglect of psychological date
- Degree of cultural contact can’t be measured
- Indicative concept of ideal pattens & situations which may be at variance from ground reality.
- Neglect of other factors of an internal / external nature other than city.

Conclusion – Despite it’s limited applicability F-U continuum helps to understand cultural process in civilisation.

Other Scholars Supporting F-U Continuum

Morris Oppler in his extension of Indian village – village endogamy + caste assemblies + religious centres in town + pilgrimage shrines → create village urban linkage
Horace Miner in the The Folk Urban continuum (1952) – analysed concept
M.S.A Roain Urbanisation & Social change → study of Yadavpurvillage near delhi
- villagers, due to expansion of city of Delhi, started growing vegetation & market oriented crops for city market
- Gave idea of Fringe Society dynamic & two way interaction in F-U continuum

ANSWER STRUCTURE

What is TCC (BG if 20 marker- Hutton)
Based on RR concept of Folk Urban continuum given in Folk Culture of Yucatan
FG Bailey- TCC- although differences- they are merging into a different system
Examples- Surajit Sinha, NK Bose, Majumdar, KS Singh
Processes
CRITICISM- TC Das- Bhumij, Kharia
Conclusion- TCC stillrelevant today- Santhals

Tribe-Caste Continuum

The gradual process through which a tribal group transforms itself into a caste group is designated as the Tribe Caste Continuum.

F.G Bailey used concept of TCC while studying Kondh & Oriya political system. He opposed view of seeing either tribe or caste at isolation, but proposed to view in continuum.

He said, a particular society may located according to their proximity to either organic caste modes or segmentary tribe modes. He termed Oriya caste society as organic & Konda tribe as segmentary. He proposes that kinship values & religious values of both are in continuum.
Thus, tribe caste continuum was evolutionary view of transformation of society from simple pole to complex pole. Thus, it is considered as product of synthesis of British & American structural functionalism & neo-evolutionism to study Indian Civilisation.

Background

In Indian anthropology, the problem of TCC arose as many census commissioners of India faced the difficulties in decidingwhere the category of “tribe” ended & “caste” began.
Hutton gave a 1931 census difference, b/w Hindus & Animists as Castes & Tribes respectively
Even now the confusion persists- The Santhals are listed as tribals in Bihar, WB & Orissa & as O.B.C. in Assam.
The concept of “continuum” owes its origin to Redfield’s concept of Folk-Urban continuum when he published The Folk Culture of Yucatan (1941).

There are several characteristics that are common to tribes and castes and there are several characteristics that differentiate them from one another.

Certain differences b/w Tribe & Caste(Not necessary to mention this)

FG Bailey- in his paper “Tribe & caste in India” on structural terms r/l to politico -economic system : Castes are hierarchical & segmentary while tribes are egalitarian & organic solidarity
Andre Betielle
- Relative isolation of tribes- geographically & few external social ties; castes a part of a greater whole
- Language- distinct dialect that differ from major languages
- Religious beliefs that are distinct from common Hinduism practices
- Economic occupation- tribes are self sufficient while castes are subunits within a wider economic str

Although there are several such differences b/w a tribe & a caste, there has been a gradual & silent change from tribe to caste.

Similarities between tribes & castes

Acc to FG Bailey– Tribes & caste should be viewed on a linear continuum with each at one pole. He declares that both castes & tribes are being merged into a different system which is neither one nor the other.
Endogamy appears to be the chief characteristic feature that is common between a tribe & a caste.
caste & tribe similar ; each considered by its members to an endogamous entity composed of ritual equals.

Examples

‘Tribal- Rajput Continuum’ Surajit Sinha, Bhumij tribes
- Found similarities between lower castes and tribes
  - Emphasis on equality in social behaviour
  - Womens freedom of cultural participation
  - Supernaturalism
Juangs studied by NK Bose– Laxmi Pooja while retaining meat eating
Ho & Khasa studied by DN Majumdar- Jaunsari people of Cis Himalayans of UP have social inequality and hierarchy like that of Jatis- miniature caste system
Tribalization– acceptance of tribal mores, beliefs and rituals by communities especially lower castes- SL Kalia, KS Singh. Seen in Bastar region
Hill Reddies of Andhra studied by Haimendorf became plough cultivators after contact with outside caste culture.

Factors that lead to TCC

Contact with hindu culture – Sachindanada points out that tribes in indian were in contact with hindu societies for many centuries, thus directly or indirectly imbibed Hinduism’s influence.
Ecological & Demographic Factors: Mendelbum points out
- Ecology → ↓ carrying capacity → tribal migration → village → acquire caste features
Economic – tribe with mechanical solidarity easily attracted towards caste which gave them economic security.
Hindu method of Tribal Absorption– NK Bose, Juangs
Diffusion, Acculturation
Interaction b/w little & great traditions at a sacred complex or otherwise- Universalization & Parochialization processes
Sanskritization- MNS- Tribal mode- Gonds Kshatriya model
Government polices- connectivity, Development induced dsiplacement
Impact of Religion on Tribes- Hinduism
Risely – kings forcecfully conquired tribes, thus leading to TCC
- Srinivas – No forceful conquest.
Surjit Sinha from his fieldwork of Bhumji from Barahbum & Tribes of Bastar, observed similarity of social behaviour within lower caste & tribes (supernaturalism in lower caste)

TCC -Interactional Level

Scholar opines that transition of tribe to caste involve progress in ethnic heterogeneity, role specialisation, social stratification, emergence of elite & increased interaction with network of civilisational centres.
Interaction of TCC consist of different process of Hinduiasation, Sanskritisation, universalisation & parochialization & in cases sacred complex also.
N.K Bose in his Hindu Modes of Trial absorption show how tribes being pulled towards caste structures mainly thr agriculture & craft based economy of caste system which attracts tribe.
Martin Orans in ‘Santhal : A Tribe in search of GT’ show how tribes th diff models attacked towards high complex belief of Hinduism.
Haimendorf study of Reddis of Bison hills shows how thr British contact, plough cultivation leads to transformation of Reddis in caste system as Kshatriya

Changes that occur during Tribe Caste Continuum

As the tribals enter into the caste hierarchytheir attitude towards life undergoes significant modification

Sanskritisation wave & attraction of Brahmanism
Individuality becomes a virtue
New customs find favour with the people
New name is acquired sometimes
New custom code to be followed
The imp of the blood bond or the kinship group is forced to the background
The tribal elders are pushed to the background, The clan chief & sacerdotal head lose their importance and power.
the common economy of the clan is superseded by the individual desire for gain & property;
Market Economy- money assumes an importance unknown in tribal society;
and the ties of moral obligation, duty and reciprocity give way to a nexus based on economic gain and self-interest.

Hindu society too expertise some changes

Gotra System : D.D Kosambi finds root of Gotras in tribal clan org.
Endogamy – Uma Chakravarthy points how tribal need of preserving identity & caste’s need of preserving purity is satisfied by str. Of endogamy.

Criticism of Tribe caste Continuum

TC Das- studied the Bhumij tribals from same area as Juang- they showed revolt against the dominating Hindu culture
Das’s study on Kharia tribe – hunting gathering tribe lived completely outside influence of Hinduism
Nathan in his from tribe to caste criticised view of eager of tribe to convert into caste as ethnocentric & biased.
- Ex Ghurye – every tribe is backward Hindu caste
- B. Saraswati → Cultural oneness of tribe & caste
careful ignorance of changes brought in Hindu caste system by tribal contact (like Gotra)
In certain cases, Tribalization takes places
TCC is oppressive for tribes ; ex Bhils, who played instrumental role in formation of Mewar state were oppressed in same state.

Thus, though TCC at times may not be adequate for representing the complex social transformation b/w tribe & caste, but helps to deal with fluidity of social categories in Indian context.

Conclusion

Problem of distinguishing between them still continues today
Santhal considered STs in Central Indian states but OBC is Assam

Surjit Sinha’s view on TCC

Introduction – Taking a que from Bailey’s interpretation of TCC, Surjit Sinha, disciple of Robert Redfield gave his own interpretation of TCC

Ethnographic Studies

After examining ethnographic material of Bhumji from Barabhum & some tribes of bastar, he suggested that continuum be conceived simultaneously, yet distinctively, on level of ethnic group & as local communities. He opined that lower castes in India seem to share with tribals
- Equality in social behaviour
- Freedom of cultural participation for women
- Value system Little burdened by puritanical asceticism
- Supernaturalism
Study of Rajputisation of tribes in Central India :
- SS argues that ‘State formation in tribal belt of central india is largely a story of rejputisation of tribes. He also opines that diffusion of Rajput model of state is indigenous development process which can be attained only by those tribes who have settled agri technology.
- He points that most striking impact of state formation on internal structure of tribes : Stratification of hitherto egalitarian society.
  - Validation of status in stratification is in terms of m’age, alliance, kinship ties & ritual symbols
    - Person r/l with Rajpur family → gains considerable prestige.
- Thus, there is hierarchical str & mythical linkage b/w ordinary tribes of central india & Rajputs of highest orders in N.W India.
- Thus, myths of Rajput std of living & structural framework of state ruled by Rajput family or pseudo Rajput lineages → connects tribes of central India in a special way to mainstream of hindu civilisation, thereby establishing very strong TCC.

Hindu Mode of Tribal Absorption

Since vedic times, tribal system was going thr small changes in qualitative & qualitative terms. Unlike Europe, where tribes was absorbed into class system, S. Asian model or Hindu model of absorption of tribe is based on caste system.

So, Nirmal Kumar Bose – proposed a theory known as the “Hindu Method of Tribal Absorption”

The essence of the theory was: the Tribals who had come into contact with their powerful caste Hindu neighbours gradually lost their own tribal identity and were given a low-caste status within the Hindu fold.
Examples
- Juang tribe of Pal Lahara in Orissa hill – Ceremony in which Hindu goddess(Lakshmi) was worshipped (best ex) – 1928The Manda Parab celebrated by the Munda & Oraon tribal group
- Muchi shoe makers & leather workers in the throes of a reform movement

NK Bose- Juangs Study, 1928

Lakshmi pooja & emulating hindu rituals
Sacrifice and beef eating
Bamboo basket making- b/c shifting cultivation & hunting was banned → Monopoly

Conclusion based on nature of cultural process of change operating in hindu society ( about after social integration )

He said “ These are occupational fissions within one caste, as well as an absorption of tribal groups from outside into the pale of Hindu social org. New recruits like Juangs or the Mundas may no exactly now be c/led Hindu caste. For they have yet retained their independent social rites which are not ruled over by Brahmins. But here perhaps we see the operation of a method by means by which the Hindus absorbed tribal groups within their own system.”
Thus, the cultural distinction b/w the absorbed & te absorbing communities also tended to become in distinct on a/c of mutual give & take.
However, there would be no intermarriage; yet distance b/w different elements were not sharped.
But in economic life the traffic was nearly one way,
while in regard to higher forms of beliefs & ritual, there was more interchange & a greater measure of autonomy & of diversity.

Criticism

TC Das studied the Bhumij tribals from same area as Juang- they showed revolt against the dominating Hindu culture
Das’s study on Kharia tribe in Dhalbhum – hunting gathering tribe lived completely outside influence of Hinduism
HMTA has been criticised for taking away focus from more secular indian anthropology

Development- brought tribes more into mainstream- impact of hinduism on tribals
But also given tribals their own identity and provisions- so maintaining their lifestyle in a changing economic- political landscape

Tribalization

Historical proximity b/w tribes & hindu society pointed by Sachindanda lead to cultural exchange b/w two. Scholars believed that such transformation of tribes into caste was not unidirectional. Countervailing attempts was there to preserve old identity by tribals. This brought some changes in Hindu society k/n as Tribalization.

K.S Singh defines it as ‘acceptance of tribal mores, rituals & beliefs by incoming communists’. He points out that such acceptance is more easier for middle or lower segments of caste hierarchical order as they move in search or land or offer services to tribal masters. Singh is of opinion that process doesn’t affect Brahmins & other higher caste
S.L Kali, however from study of Jaunsar-Bawar region (UP) & Basra Region observed that UP Brahmins stays in Jaunsar tribal areas, eat meat, drink liquor, consort with tribal women & gradually get trivialised.
Nihar Ranjan Ray suggest tribalisation as process which affect religious beliefs & rituals & social practices of immigrating communities of Aryans
- He explains various totemic & animistic beliefs of Aryans as gain from autochthones i.e Dasyus
- village god (Gram Devata) worship prohibited in Brahminical injections was tribal influence.
Misra & Behura explains similar for tribal Orissa for 3 castes – blacksmith, potter & weaver
Majumdar based on Khasa Study, calls process as desanskritization
N. Elwin points that thr tribals convert into full faith of Hinduism, but they retain their totem rules & several other religious elements, thus influencing Hinduism.

Other aspects of tribalisation process :

Respect for tribal priest & medicine man along with tribal deties
Participation of tribe in formation of state & their continuous support e.g Bhils in Mewar state

Current Relevance – Pseudo tribalism demands of Gujjars

Interesting read from the Brain tree from the topic…

TCC & Sanskritisation : Comparison

social mobility as defined by Sorokin is Movement of persons or group or value by human activity from one position to another. So both TCC & Sanskritisation are process of social mobility.

Difference Between TCC & Sanskritisation

TCC is phenomenon of interaction of tribe & caste while Sanskritisation is process of upward social mobility within caste hierarchy
TCC involves structural change wherein tribal social structure like kinship & religion undergoes fundamental change. But, Sanskritistion is process of positional change where not structural change in involve.
Time taken : Sachidanda points out that interaction of tribe & caste is going since vedic period whereas Sanskritistion is Late phenomenon owing to rigidity acquired by caste system since Gupta period ; moreover, TCC requires less time whereas Sanskritistion takes generations.
Process – Sanskritistion involves mere imitation of rituals & traditions of reference models, whereas TCC involves adoption of rituals & traditions of caste system by tribal society.
Models – While for TCC, hindu caste system act aas single model, whereas Sanskritistion involves various models like Brahmin, kashatriya depend on reference group involved
Direction – Sanskritistion is generally unidirectional phenomenon with lower caste adopting higher caste rituals. TCC is bidirectional process with cultural exchange b/w tribe & caste.
Acceptance – TCC is more acceptable as tribes is considered as ‘backward Hindus’ proposed by Ghurye. Sanskritistion is with more resistance due to ambition of upper caste to retain hegemony.
Initiators – Outside contact plays important role in TCC where agents like Hindu priest initiates process. Whereas Sanskritistion is initiated due to self desire of lower caste to elevate status.
Old traditions – TCC process involves tribes to adopt Hindu tradtions, though certain old tribal traits are retained. Whereas Sanskritistion involves giving up lower traditions.
Motives – for TCC, it is to assimilate with Hindu society, whereas for Sanskritistion it Is to elevate social status of caste
Reversibility – in TCC, tribalisation of hindu section can take place due to contact with tribal culture. In Sanskritistion, de-Sanskritistion is more of independent phenomena.

Similarities b/w TCC & Sanskritistion

Sanskritistion is one of tools used in tribe to caste mobility
Both process generally adopts Brahmins as reference models
Oppression is common element b/w two process wherein lower castes & tribes are placed at lower hierarchy.
Ethnocentrism as common element observed by Nathan where desire for getting casteisized by tribes is a misconception as per Nathan
Both process helps to consolidation of caste system. & thus helps to retain hegemony of Brahmins
Both process result in degradation in position of women, adoption vegetarianism & more social restrictions

Thus, both process exhibits certain similarities due to influence of British & American school in study of Indian Civilisation.

Purity & Pollution

Louis Dumont & Views

G.S Ghurye

Main Approaches To Study Caste System

Attributional Approach

Interactional Approach

Caste – System of Hierarchy or Stratification | Ritual Ranking or Political -Eco

Varna Model

Jati Model

Caste in other Religion

Theories of Origin of Caste System

Traditional Theories

Theory of Cultural Integration

Occupation Theory

Racial Theory – Race & Hypergamy

Hutton’s Mana Theory

Brahminical / Political Theory

Aryan Invasion Theory

Small Endogenous Group Theory

Criticism

conclusion Final

Dominant Caste

Dominant Caste & Social Mobility

Effectiveness of DC Concept Today

Is Numerical Strength prerequisites for DC ?

Clientelism in Indian Villages

Different Forms of Dalit Assertion

Ambedkar’s view on caste system & Differences from Mainstream

Ambedkar’s View on Annihilation of caste

Caste & Politics

Caste, Politics & Economics

Caste Mobility

Types of Caste Mobility

Secularisation of Social Mobility

Caste System & Contemporary Society

Future of Caste System

Stand of 3 schools

Can Caste exist in Indian of Tomorrow ?

Scholarly Opinion of Future of Caste System

Jajmani System

Primary & Secondary Civilisation

FolK Society

Urban Society

Peasant Society

Folk Urban Continuum

Tribe-Caste Continuum

Surjit Sinha’s view on TCC

Hindu Mode of Tribal Absorption

Tribalization

TCC & Sanskritisation : Comparison

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